Cemetery Site Research Articles

Visitor's Characteristic and Motivation at Museum Prasasti as Dark Tourism Site in Jakarta

Tourists are pushed to travel to different destinations, either pleasant or macabre destinations, for various motives. Tourist motivation which determines one’s behaviour can be used to understand the tourists’ needs, destination, and choice of activities. This research aimed to investigate local tourists’ characteristics and motivation for visiting Museum Prasasti, which formerly served as a Dutch cemetery. It was conducted due to the limited number of researches on tourists’ visitation to cemetery sites in Indonesia. The research was conducted at Museum Prasasti, Jakarta. The data collection gained from the paper-based questionnaires using the Likert scale. This quantitative method was used to measure tourists’ tendency during their stay at Museum Prasasti. The measurement of motivation was divided into four major motivations: engaging entertainment, dark experience, unique learning experience, and casual interest. By collecting the data from101 responses, this research shows that local tourists at Museum Prasasti are mostly female, under the age of 30, students, and come from lower-middle-class society. The unique learning experience is the most favourable motivation that drives local tourists to visit Museum Prasasti. They visit the museum for educational purposes (to increase their knowledge, understand well-known places regarding their historical heritage, and learn their history). The dark experience motivation least likely motivates them (to see well-known locations for their paranormal activity, experience paranormal activity firsthand, and witness the aftermath of deaths).

Mapping unmarked graves with Ground Penetrating Radar at the Walkerville Wesleyan Cemetery, Adelaide

A Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) survey was undertaken to map unmarked graves within the historic Walkerville Wesleyan Cemetery in Adelaide. The survey revealed 168 probable graves, 20 possible graves and 68 additional graves containing more than one interment. Our results demonstrate the utility of geophysical methods, specifically GPR, as a non-invasive tool for managing the cultural heritage of cemetery sites and suggest that this method could play a more significant role in Australian archaeology.

Object-based geographical data model for determination of the cemetery sites using SWOT and AHP integration

While in the times of feudalism the land was a source of wealth, having only a financial value, today it has become valuable as a limited resource. It should not be forgotten land is becoming scarce, so it must be very well planned and managed. In order for cemeteries to be sustainable and effectively manageable, it is essential to collect, store and examine information related to these sites like other types of areas. A geographic database design was developed in order to identify and resolve existing problems related to cemetery management nationwide in accordance with the ISO 19152 standard.

Fishing for “lucky stones”: Symbolic uses of otoliths in Brazilian shell sites

Otoliths are concretions of aragonite located in fish neurocrania, also popularly known as “lucky stones”. These elements are commonly found in Brazilian shell mounds and middens, and have long been regarded as a by-product of food processing and consumption. Zooarchaeologists commonly use them to identify species, estimate age, quantify fish, and to discuss capture methods and seasonality of occupation, among other aspects of fish and human populations. My research at Jabuticabeira II, a cemetery site with large quantities of otoliths closely associated with burials, explores alternative uses of otoliths by past coastal populations that inhabited the southern Brazilian coast. I reviewed ethnographic and historical accounts of the use of otoliths to check distinct uses of these fish elements. I analyzed 9258 otoliths and 76,990 fish bones from Jabuticabeira II to identify patterns of fragmentation, thermal alteration, element representation and distribution across contexts. The results indicate that otoliths were deliberately placed in burials, pointing to the symbolic value of otoliths. This research reinforces the need to consider the non-economic uses of fish by pre-historic populations.

Getting to grips with 3D printed bones: Using 3D models as ‘diagrams’ to improve accessibility of palaeopathological data

To download this paper, please click here. This short report details a sub-project of ‘Stories through Skeletons’ an interdisciplinary venture undertaken by the Osteoarchaeology and Bioengineering departments at the University of Southampton. As part of this project, the team has been exploring the potential of using 3D printing technology to improve accessibility of palaeopathological data to a wider audience, through the production of tactile aids. To test this idea, models were created of Langer type mesomelic dwarfism exhibited in a skeleton from the Romano-British cemetery site of Alington Avenue, Dorset, UK. The 3D models were used as props during osteoarchaeology conference presentations and have proved useful to visually impaired and non-disabled audiences alike. Methods used to create the 3D models and the feedback received from the preliminary showing of the models at conferences are outlined, including the development of the idea of the 3D models as ‘diagrams’. This highlights the creation of accessibility tools as another potential use of 3D technology in the field of osteoarchaeology and in so doing, adds the issue of accessibility to the ethical debates surrounding the use of 3D modelling technology in physical anthropology more broadly.

An examination of the cross-sectional geometrical properties of the long bone diaphyses of Holocene foragers from Roonka, South Australia.

This study examines long bone diaphyseal rigidity and shape of hunter-gatherers at Roonka to make inferences about subsistence strategies and mobility of inhabitants of semi-arid southeastern Australia. Roonka is a cemetery site adjacent to the Lower Murray River, which contains over 200 individuals buried throughout the Holocene. Archaeological evidence indicates that populations living near this river corridor employed mobile, risk averse foraging strategies. This prediction of lifestyle was tested by comparing the cross-sectional geometric properties of the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, and fibula of individuals from Roonka to samples of varying subsistence strategies. Bilateral asymmetry of the upper limb bones was also examined. Roonka males and females have moderately high lower limb diaphyseal rigidity and shape. In the upper limb, females have low rigidity and bilateral asymmetry while males have moderately high rigidity and bilateral asymmetry. This pattern is similar to other foraging groups from Australia and southern Africa that have behaviorally adapted to arid and semi-arid environments. Lower limb results suggest that populations in the Lower Murray River Valley had relatively elevated foraging mobility. Upper limb rigidity and bilateral asymmetry indicate a sexual division of labor at Roonka. Females resemble other samples that had mixed subsistence strategies that involved hunting, gathering, and processing tasks. Males display a pattern similar to groups that preferentially hunted large game, but that supplemented this source with smaller game and riverine resources.

TOOLS FOR TEXTILES: TEXTILE PRODUCTION AT THE ETRUSCAN SETTLEMENT OF POGGIO CIVITATE, MURLO, IN THE SEVENTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES BC

This paper discusses some of the insights that have been gained from the study of the textile tools from the Etruscan settlement of Poggio Civitate di Murlo and coeval textiles recovered from the adjacent cemetery site of Poggio Aguzzo di Murlo. Over 1,600 textile tools (including spindle whorls, loom weights, and spools) are analysed from a functional perspective, and results suggest that the textiles found in burials were likely produced at the site. This new information is discussed in light of other subsistence and craft activities documented at the settlement, all of which indicate an inward-oriented economy that catered to the local elites and the populations they controlled.

Socio-economics and management of Muslim cemetery waqf using istibdal and GIS method in Penang state

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to implement the istibdal waqf concept using a geographical information system (GIS) for the benefit of socio-economics and Muslim cemetery waqf management. GIS is a technique that provides clearer, precise and faster access to a location based on actual space data. It attempts to analyze the area that one wishes to develop to establish whether it fulfills the criteria set for istibdal.Design/methodology/approachThis research was conducted qualitatively. The study begins with the development of the concept of istibdal waqf and the concept of GIS. The concept was developed by conducting a literature review of books, articles, newspapers, fatwa and circulars related to istibdal waqf and GIS. After the concept was formed, field studies were conducted on two mosques, namely, Jamek Jelutong Mosque and Masjid Jamek Sungai Nibong because both mosques have gravesites located within their compound. To obtain information on the problems faced by the mosques Jemaah community, researchers have interviewed the Mosque Committee Members and Jemaah Community in both mosques using the unstructured interviewing method. This process is essential in managing both material and spiritual for sustaining socio-economics of the society.FindingsThe results showed that by applying GIS technique could identify new land locations according to the criteria set by istibdal. Additionally, new location environments found through the GIS application can be viewed more clearly and accurately than using the manual method. The findings also revealed that some of the mosque managers and the heirs of the waqf grave land were not open-minded in accepting the istibdal concept of the grave that had been allowed by the Syarak until the process of expanding the mosque was affected. The study also found that the maslahah consideration was considered between doing istibdal waqf and not doing istibdal waqf, the maslahah of doing istibdal waqf is greater because general (umum) maslahah should be prioritized compared to the special (khusus) maslahah. In addition, this effort can appreciate the morality and ethics of waqf donors to donate their wealth or properties for benefit of society.Research limitations/implicationsThis study only focuses on Muslim cemetery waqf in Penang Island.Practical implicationsThis study is expected to benefit both material and spiritual where Muslim cemetery site can be developed for expanding mosque site and consequently able to accommodate the increasing of Muslim using the mosque.Originality/valueThis study proposes the transformation of the concept of istibdal waqf from the traditional methods to modern and advanced methods using the GIS application. The study also demonstrates how the software for solving the real problem can be used, i.e. the problem of a limited mosque space for sharing space with a cemetery in Penang.

Continuation of fishing subsistence in the Ukrainian Neolithic: diet isotope studies at Yasinovatka, Dnieper Rapids

Yasinovatka is one of around 30 prehistoric cemetery sites of fisher-hunter-foragers located along the Dnieper River in southern Ukraine. Dating to c. 5540–4930 cal BC, the skeletal remains at Yasinovatka suggest that around sixty-eight individuals were interred at the cemetery, during three broad phases of interment: A-type burials (c. 5540–4930 cal BC), Ƃ1 pit burials (c. 5550–4750 cal BC), and Ƃ2 pit burials (c. 4980–4460 cal BC). The burials are characterized, in part, by the inclusion of a number of Mariupol-type plates of boar tusk, in addition to deer tooth pendants, Unio shells, knife-like flint blades, Cyprinidae teeth, sherds of Neolithic pottery, and significant deposits of ochre in the later burial pits. Here we analyse δ13C and δ15N values for 50 human bone collagen samples from the site. The majority of the isotope results show a fisher-hunter-forager population reliant predominantly on freshwater aquatic proteins, which is in keeping with previous dietary isotope studies in the area. Two individuals however have δ15N values that are clearly depleted when compared with the main population; these reflect dietary protein intakes based on plant and animal terrestrial resources rather than the predominant focus on aquatic resources. Notably, the δ13C values of these anomalous individuals are not enriched compared with the fauna samples analysed from the region; this supports the possibility that they were incomers to the area, potentially from a nearby agrarian population.

What shall we put in the grave? Archaeometric analyses of ceramics from a late Pre-Roman, Roman and Migration period cemetery in Malbork-Wielbark, northern Poland

AbstractThe necropolis at Malbork-Wielbark was excavated from 1927 to 1936 and 2008 to 2019. This burial ground is the eponymous site of the Wielbark culture. To date, over 2000 burials, both inhumation and cremation (pit and urn graves), have been recorded at this site, attesting to its continuous use from the Early Pre-Roman Iron Age (phase A1) to the early Migration Period (phase D1), with particular emphasis on the Roman Period. The cemetery site partially overlies and damages an earlier Iron Age settlement of the Pomeranian culture.Laboratory analyses were carried out on 113 pottery sherds. The series of samples chosen for analysis reflected, as far as was possible, all relative chronological phases and vessel shapes. The pottery was analysed using a step by step strategy built on the results of MGR-analysis (i. e. the classification of samples based on their matrix type) and on a macroscopic assessment of clastic material. In addition, an estimation of chemical composition by portable energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) was available for each sample. After they had been classified, samples were selected for chemical analysis by wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WD-XRF), estimation of physical ceramic properties (open porosity, water absorption and apparent density), Kilb-Hennike analysis (K-H analysis), thin-section studies using a polarising microscope, a study of surface phenomena by RTI (Reflectance Transformation Imaging), thermal analysis (TG-DTG-DTA), X-ray diffraction analysis and functional properties analysis (water permeability and thermal shock resistance), as well as experimental estimation of magnetic properties.The results of MGR-analysis carried out on ceramic samples taken from 113 potsherds revealed that all of the pottery was made from various non-calcareous clays with fine-grained iron compounds homogeneously distributed in the matrix. It was decided not to carry on determining/using MGR-groups, as nearly every sherd represents a different MGR-group. This means that these vessels were made during different production cycles. The differences in thermal behaviour between samples were attributed only to matrix-type groups. It can be concluded that 85 % of the total sherds were made from plastic raw materials of the same provenance, and that the same matrix-type groups occurred in all chronological phases. The percentage of vessels made of particular raw materials indicates a significant difference in the preferences of Pomeranian Culture potters and those of Pre-Roman Iron Age, Early Roman Period and those of the Late Roman Period, when one type of raw material disappears from use. This last period is also characterized by an increase in the number of vessels fired in a reducing atmosphere. Standardization is also evident in vessel-wall thickness, which falls within a narrow range of values, on the other hand combined with a large variety in grain sizes up to very large ones and with a wide range of open porosity values, which in turn points to a lack of care in the preparation of the ceramic body. Vessels that may have been non-local origin are noted in all chronological phases. Analysis of functional properties (water permeability and thermal shock resistance) revealed that the pottery deposited in graves included fully functional wares, such as cooking pots, as well as vessels intended solely as grave goods.More than a few samples evidence the use of a slow-rotating potter’s wheel, and it is also possible that a template was used for forming vessel rims. However, there are very few examples of truly technologically advanced vessels. The technology is generally tailored to the desired type or form of vessel.

Angkor Borei and Protohistoric Trade Networks: A View from the Glass and Stone Bead Assemblage

Angkor Borei, Cambodia was an important urban center related to the early first millennium c.e. polity known as Funan. Excavations in the protohistoric period Vat Komnou Cemetery site uncovered over 1300 glass and stone beads, which are important material indicators of trade. In this article, we review data from earlier studies and add new previously unpublished data on glass and stone beads from this collection as well as previously unpublished glass compositional analyses from the nearby site of Oc Eo, Vietnam. Examinations of the glass beads highlight the presence of large quantities of high alumina mineral soda glass associated with Sri Lankan or South Indian bead production as well as smaller quantities of other glass types in circulation throughout Southeast Asia. Compositional and morphological studies of agate/carnelian beads show strong affinities with the Indian bead industry, while the garnet beads came from raw material sources in southern India. Overall, Angkor Borei's bead collection shows strong contacts with different regions of South Asia. Comparison with the bead assemblages of other contemporaneous sites demonstrate strong affinities with sites farther inland, such as Phum Snay and Prei Khmeng, Cambodia and Ban Non Wat, Thailand rather than other maritime coastal sites in Southeast Asia. We argue that the stone and glass beads at Angkor Borei are related to intensified interaction with South Asia and that elites at Angkor Borei used these exotic prestige goods to build alliances with sites farther inland forming an intraregional exchange network we call the Mekong Interaction Sphere.

Chinese Cemetery as Heterotopia: A Case of Kwong Tong Chinese Cemetery (KTCC)

With the emergence of new typologies of memorial parks and commercialisation of industries for the dead in Malaysia, what is the image and fate of older cemetery sites within the urban realm? This paper aims to re-define the perception of urban Chinese cemetery as a heterotopic space through the case study of Kwong Tong Chinese Cemetery (KTCC). Using the Foucauldian notion of heterotopia as a framework for analysis, this paper studies the transitions of KTCC through time, and how it stands in relation to the society that produced it. The paper argues that the cemetery is a highly heterotopic site; it is a space of representation and a space of difference, which celebrates the disruption of space and time in relation to society. The implication of society towards the ever changing role of a cemetery, and for now, the changing progression is at the stage where the contemporary Chinese cemetery in Malaysia displays its multi-functional spatial qualities within a single site, as a space of ‘otherness’.

An Ethnoarcheological Study of the Architectural Relationship Between Settlement and Cemetery Sites in a Remote Iranian Village

ABSTRACTIn 2014–2015 we combined questionnaires with direct observation to study the architectural transition of a remote Iranian village in order to assess the relationship between the layout and architecture of the settlement and the cemetery, and to assess the ways the characteristics of the settlement were or were not reflected in the cemetery. The architecture of the settlement site in Makhunik has undergone considerable transformation from its inception to the present and this is still visible in the current architecture; however, changes in the cemetery are limited.

Exploring diet and status in the Medieval and Modern periods of Asturias, Spain, using stable isotopes from bone collagen

This study explored the relationship between paleodietary patterns and social inequality in rural human populations from Medieval (AD 600–1499) and Modern (AD 1500–1800) Asturias, Spain. Diets were investigated through stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes from a sample of burials from eight cemetery sites (n = 80). Social status was inferred by burial location, where individuals interred within church buildings (ad sanctos) were compared to those buried in cemeteries. While Medieval and Modern society was strongly hierarchical, burial location is only one factor in determining the status and diet of individuals. It was hypothesized that ad sanctos burials would have elevated δ15N values as a reflection of high-status individuals consuming protein-rich diets in comparison to lower-status peasant populations; however, results found no significant differences in δ15N values between those buried in ad sanctos compared to those buried in cemeteries. Rather, the results of our paleodietary reconstruction indicate that the difference in δ13C values is statistically significant between burial location, where ad sanctos burials have more elevated δ13C than commoner individuals. These elevated δ13C values suggest that those buried in places of prestige often consumed a different diet (more C4 resources) from than those buried outside of church walls.

Inflammatory periosteal reaction on ribs associated with lower respiratory tract disease: A method for recording prevalence from sites with differing preservation.

ObjectivesInflammatory periosteal reaction (IPR) on the visceral surfaces of the ribs has been used in bioarchaeology as an indicator of lower respiratory tract disease. This article presents a detailed method for recording IPR on the ribs, even those in severely fragmented states, with the objectives of increasing the consistency of recording and producing true prevalence rates for skeletons so as to improve data comparability between future bioarchaeological studies of lower respiratory tract disease.Materials and methodsThe presence and prevalence of respiratory‐related IPR were recorded from three different Sudanese cemetery sites using a detailed method for identifying and recording IPR. Sites with variable preservation were chosen to test the applicability of the method. A flowchart to aid in identification of bony changes is presented. The method requires the recording of IPR on three separate sections of the rib (neck, angle, and shaft) and the allocation of ribs into rib cage regions of upper, upper‐middle, middle, lower‐middle, and lower.ResultsResults demonstrate differences in the distribution of IPR between sites and verify the method's applicability to archeological sites with various levels of skeletal preservation.DiscussionWhile crude prevalence rates can indicate the number of individuals experiencing lower respiratory tract disease within a site, this method can provide information about the distribution of IPR within the rib cage. This should lead to new ways of distinguishing respiratory diseases within archeological populations. This method also allows for comparability between well‐preserved and lesser‐preserved sites by accommodating for rib fragmentation.

An Analysis of Soil Microhabitats in Revolutionary War, Civil War, and Modern Graveyards on Long Island, NY

Previously established data indicate that cemeteries have contributed to groundwater and soil pollution. This study aimed to determine whether there was a variation in the microbes in cemeteries due to embalming techniques and to identify primary microbial communities in each cemetery. Different embalming techniques were used during different eras in recent history. These fluids can impact both epinecrotic and thanatomicrobiomes, the microbiomes that exist in decomposing remains. Additionally, these fluids can seep into the microbial communities, affecting the microbiome composition, and continue to leach into the larger surrounding environment, contributing to water source and aquifer pollution. We evaluated the 16S rDNA microbial gene followed by QIIME analyses using the Jupyter Notebooks application. We hypothesized that microbial variation would be high between cemeteries of different eras due to dissimilarities between embalming techniques employed, and furthermore, that specific microbes would act as an indication for certain contaminants. The results indicate that the following phyla were present: Proteobacteria, Planctomycetes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, Chloroflexi, Verrucomicrobia, Acidobacteria, and AD3. These taxonomic classifications were present in all sites with the exception of AD3 which was absent in the Civil War Cemetery. Overall, cemetery sites were clustered together based on location due to variations in the concentrations of the phyla and their more specific taxa.

Pratiques funéraires et dynamique spatiale à Oakaie 1, une nécropole à la transition du Néolithique à l’Âge du Bronze au Myanmar (Birmanie)

En Asie du Sud-Est, la fin de la préhistoire – de l’apparition de l’agriculture à la naissance de proto-États – ne dure que de 1500 à 2000 ans. Les cimetières sont des sites essentiels pour comprendre ces changements marqués par des influences culturelles indiennes et chinoises. Le Myanmar est le seul pays d’Asie du Sud-Est avec lequel ces pays partagent une frontière terrestre. Les données archéologiques nouvellement acquises pour le Myanmar permettent d’éclairer cette période charnière. Cet article présente les résultats de l’étude de la nécropole d’Oakaie 1 (région de Sagaing), fouillée durant deux saisons entre 2014 et 2015 dans le cadre de la Mission Archéologique Française au Myanmar (MAFM). La nécropole est datée entre la fin du Néolithique et le début de l’âge du Bronze. Les 55 sépultures et 57 inhumés mis au jour permettent d’analyser l’évolution des pratiques funéraires pendant plusieurs siècles. L’organisation de l’espace sépulcral est particulière. Les fosses, organisées en rangées sont distribuées selon deux grandes orientations, N-S et NNO-SSE. Les inhumations sont individuelles ou plurielles (9 cas) et, dans un cas, un chien a été inhumé avec des humains. L’analyse taphonomique suggère l’usage de contenants périssables larges ou étroits, avec des bords montants, probablement des troncs d’arbres évidés. Les biens funéraires les plus communs sont des céramiques généralement placées près des membres inférieurs ou dans le comblement de la fosse. Des éléments de parure (perles en coquillages et en pierre, bracelets en pierre polie et en matière dure animale) étaient aussi associés aux défunts, tandis qu’une unique sépulture a fourni un objet en métal (une hache en bronze). L’usage croisé de critères variés, dont l’organisation spatiale de la nécropole, les recoupements de sépultures, les pratiques funéraires et le mobilier déposé auprès des défunts a permis d’établir que la nécropole a fonctionné durant trois phases. La première est caractérisée par 20 inhumations orientées dans un axe N-S, généralement individuelles, dotées d’un mobilier funéraire réduit constitué d’une seule céramique et de rares éléments de parure en coquillage et matière dure animale. La deuxième phase est composée de 30 sépultures orientées dans un axe NNO-SSE. Elles contiennent des inhumations individuelles et plurielles associées à des céramiques distinctes de celles rencontrées lors de la première phase et à des objets de parures, dont certains sont d’origine exotique, plus nombreux et plus fréquents. La troisième phase est représentée par une inhumation, exceptionnellement riche pour la nécropole. Le défunt était associé à 19 céramiques, une perle en pierre et une hache en bronze. Ce dépôt présente un parallèle avec des sépultures de la nécropole de Nyaung’gan située à 2,7 km de Oakaie 1. Notre analyse permet d’établir que les deux premières phases correspondent à une utilisation intermittente de la nécropole par une même population alors que la troisième marque une rupture lié à l’introduction du métal.

Searching for prehistoric small-sized graves in complex geoarchaeological conditions: Ayios Vasilios North Cemetery (Peloponnese, Greece)

Prehistoric cemeteries are important and unique sources of funerary and social practices from the early stages of civilization, but also a highly challenging environment for geophysical investigation. This study evaluates the results of a Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) survey for the detection and mapping of simple, small-sized, box-shaped graves, placed at small depths at the Late Bronze Age Ayios Vasilios North Cemetery (Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece). Interpreted grave anomalies allowed post-survey excavations to verify and not miss existent graves, but also led to the exploration of several anomalies that were not graves. We highlight and analyze in detail anomalies possibly related to graves in plan- and profile-view, compare them to real structures from pre- and post-survey excavation findings, and search for solutions for an efficient identification of GPR anomalies with graves and increase of the effectiveness and dependability of GPR for grave searching in complex site conditions, which include strong variations between geological and anthropogenic structure. We propose a procedure for refining grave interpretation that utilizes the results of both initial and advanced processing of 2D and 3D GPR data. The results of our study will benefit the use of GPR as a non-invasive method to search for small-sized graves placed at small depths in complex subsurface conditions and extend GPR use to investigate the organization and function of prehistoric cemetery sites in an intensively used space. Our work enhances the literature relative to geophysical surveying of prehistoric cemeteries, while the methodology discussed in this case study provides a useful tool for cemetery site management.

Mine waste

Mined landscapes represent the exploitation of Earth’s resources, but they also provide evidence for the unequal power relations and changing attitudes to resource use (including both geology and human beings as resources) within mining communities and their surrounding political and economic contexts. This study explores the impacts that gold mining has had on the landscapes of Johannesburg, South Africa, with particular reference to how land used for Black mineworkers’ cemeteries was reclaimed and used to store mine waste. The study describes how the uncovering of an early 20th century cemetery site beneath a mine waste dump poses questions on the meaning and significance of the dead in the urban industrial landscape. The deliberate burial and then accidental rediscovery of these bodies some 100 years later is a significant metaphor for the reinterpretation of racialised urban landscapes in South Africa.

Impact of Subsistence on Demographic Patterns in Bronze Age to Early Iron Age in Northern China

Demography is the study of human population dynamics including deaths, births, and migrations. Statistical analysis can help researchers understand paleodemographic patterns of health, mortality, and morbidity among ancient populations. Generally speaking, population is affected by both the natural environment and social conditions. This research is based on six archaeological cemetery sites located in Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia, and Shanxi Provinces in northern China, temporally spanning from the Bronze Age to the early Iron Age (about 1000 BC–200 BC). This study demonstrates how subsistence patterns influence the population in the north of ancient China. The results show that the mortality rate of the population groups that relied on animal husbandry peaks much earlier than among the agricultural groups; the estimated life expectancy of members of the agricultural economy group is longer than that of those in the animal husbandry group; and the animal husbandry group shows a relatively larger sex imbalance.