Cellulose Nanocomposites Research Articles

Nanocellulose Composite Films in Food Packaging Materials: A Review.

Owing to the environmental pollution caused by petroleum-based packaging materials, there is an imminent need to develop novel food packaging materials. Nanocellulose, which is a one-dimensional structure, has excellent physical and chemical properties, such as renewability, degradability, sound mechanical properties, and good biocompatibility, indicating promising applications in modern industry, particularly in food packaging. This article introduces nanocellulose, followed by its extraction methods and the preparation of relevant composite films. Meanwhile, the performances of nanocellulose composite films in improving the mechanical, barrier (oxygen, water vapor, ultraviolet) and thermal properties of food packaging materials and the development of biodegradable or edible packaging materials in the food industry are elaborated. In addition, the excellent performances of nanocellulose composites for the packaging and preservation of various food categories are outlined. This study provides a theoretical framework for the development and utilization of nanocellulose composite films in the food packaging industry.

Translational applications of magnetic nanocellulose composites.

Nanocellulose has emerged as a potential 'green' material owing to its inimitable properties. Furthermore, the significant development in technology has facilitated the design of multidimensional nanocellulose structures, including one-dimensional (1D: microparticles and nanofibers), two-dimensional (2D: coatings), and three-dimensional (3D: hydrogels/ferrogels) composites. In this case, nanocellulose composites blended with magnetic nanoparticles represent a new class of hybrid materials with improved biocompatibility and biodegradability. The application field of magnetic nanocellulose composites (MNCs) ranges from biomedicine and the environment to catalysis and sensing. In this review, we present the major applications of MNCs, emphasizing their innovative benefits and how they interconnect with translational applications in clinics and the environment. Additionally, we focus on the synthesis techniques and role of different additives in the fabrication of MNCs for achieving extremely precise and intricate tasks related to real-world applications. Subsequently, we reveal the recent interdisciplinary research on MNCs and discuss their mechanical, tribological, electrochemical, magnetic, and biological phenomena. Finally, this review concludes with a portrayal of computational modelling together with a glimpse of the various translational applications of MNCs. Therefore, it is anticipated that the current review will provide the readers with an extensive opportunity and a more comprehensive depiction related to the types, properties, and applications of MNCs.

Review on nanocellulose composites and CNFs assembled microfiber toward automotive applications

Review on nanocellulose composites and CNFs assembled microfiber toward automotive applications

Synthesis, characterization and biological activities of NiO-cellulose nanocomposite

NiO cellulose nanocomposite (NiO-CN) were synthesized by the precipitation method and characterized by X-Ray diffraction (XRD), Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) measurements and UV–vis spectroscopy. The particles obtained have an average size of 20-30 nm as shown by TEM analysis. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) measurements were carried out to identify the possible biomolecules responsible for the capping and stabilization of the nickel oxide nanoparticles synthesized by milk. The presence of elements in the nanoparticles was also analysed by Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis. The results of EDX analysis show the weight percentages of C, O, Ni, and N-elements in the synthesized material were 41.65%, 52.49%, 3.81%, and 2.06%, respectively. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) has been used to assess the morphology of the nanoparticle. The effects of NiO-cellulose nanocomposite are screened for biological activities like, antibacterial activity was done by the Disc diffusion method. The bacterial organisms used in this study were Bacillus subtilis, Salmonela abony, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. The observed inhibition zone for these microorganisms was found to be a minimum of 3.0 mm and a maximum of 22.0 mm. Moreover, This NiO-CN also decreases the 50% load of Leishmania donovani via MTT assay with 25µg/ml concentration after 72 hours incubation.

A Review on Barrier Properties of Cellulose/Clay Nanocomposite Polymers for Packaging Applications.

Packaging materials are used to protect consumer goods, such as food, drinks, cosmetics, healthcare items, and more, from harmful gases and physical and chemical damage during storage, distribution, and handling. Synthetic plastics are commonly used because they exhibit sufficient characteristics for packaging requirements, but their end lives result in environmental pollution, the depletion of landfill space, rising sea pollution, and more. These exist because of their poor biodegradability, limited recyclability, etc. There has been an increasing demand for replacing these polymers with bio-based biodegradable materials for a sustainable environment. Cellulosic nanomaterials have been proposed as a potential substitute in the preparation of packaging films. Nevertheless, their application is limited due to their poor properties, such as their barrier, thermal, and mechanical properties, to name a few. The barrier properties of materials play a pivotal role in extending and determining the shelf lives of packaged foods. Nanofillers have been used to enhance the barrier properties. This article reviews the literature on the barrier properties of cellulose/clay nanocomposite polymers. Cellulose extraction stages such as pretreatment, bleaching, and nanoparticle isolation are outlined, followed by cellulose modification methods. Finally, a brief discussion on nanofillers is provided, followed by an extensive literature review on the barrier properties of cellulose/clay nanocomposite polymers. Although similar reviews have been presented, the use of modification processes applied to cellulose, clay, and final nanocomposites to enhance the barrier properties has not been reviewed. Therefore, this article focuses on this scope.

Agricultural wastes: A practical and potential source for the isolation and preparation of cellulose and application in agriculture and different industries

Cellulose is an organic compound belonging to polysaccharides. This biopolymer is made of glucose subunits. This compound plays an essential role in the structure and strength of plants. This polymer has biodegradable, biocompatible, and renewable properties. Agricultural wastes are excellent sources for cellulose extraction. Agricultural wastes are lignocellulosic materials, and cellulose and lignin are the main components of these wastes. Millions of tons of agricultural waste are thrown away and burned yearly. This large amount of waste leads to environmental pollution and waste of renewable energy resources. Upgrading such waste by developing innovative products such as cellulose nanomaterials and nanocomposites can have high environmental and economic benefits. The intelligent use of agricultural waste as a rich source of cellulose can be primarily responsible for the increase in population and industrialization of countries. Optimal cellulose extraction from agricultural waste can be widely used in various fields of agriculture, industry, medicine, and energy. Different chemical, physical, physicochemical, and biological methods have been presented to extract cellulose and its derivatives from agricultural waste. In this review, we will discuss the position and importance of cellulose, the importance of agricultural waste in the extraction of cellulose, and the use of extracted cellulose from agrarian wastes in various sources.

Construction of a sustainable and hydrophobic high-performance all-green pineapple peel cellulose nanocomposite film for food packaging

The increasing global awareness of environmental issues has led to a growing interest in research on cellulose-based film. However, several limitations hinder their development and industrial application, such as hydrophilicity, inadequate mechanical properties and barrier properties, and a lack of activity. This study aimed to create a sustainable and hydrophobic high-performance all-green pineapple peel cellulose nanocomposite film for food packaging by incorporating natural carnauba wax and cellulose nanofibers (CNF) into a pineapple peel cellulose matrix. The results showed that adding carnauba wax to the cellulose matrix converted the surface wettability of the cellulose-based film from hydrophilic to hydrophobic (water contact angle over 100). Additionally, the film exhibited ultraviolet resistance and antioxidation properties. The incorporation of CNF further improved the barrier properties, mechanical properties, and thermal stability of the cellulose nanocomposite film. In applied experiments, the cellulose nanocomposite film delayed post-harvest deterioration and maintained storage quality of cherry tomatoes. Importantly, the cellulose nanocomposite film could be degraded in soil within 30 days. It can be concluded that the cellulose nanocomposite film has great potential to alleviate the environmental problems and human health problems caused by non-degradable petroleum-based plastic packaging.

Investigation of physicochemical and biological properties of bacterial cellulose & zein-reinforced edible nanocomposites based on flaxseed mucilage containing Origanum vulgare L. essential oil

In the present study, the effect of zein and different amounts of bacterial cellulose (BC; 1, 2 and 3 wt%) on the physical, mechanical and barrier properties of flaxseed mucilage/carboxymethyl cellulose (FM/CMC) composite was investigated. The appearance of the absorption band at 1320cm−1 in the ATR-FTIR spectra of nanocomposites indicated the successful introduction of zein into their structure. The characteristic peak at 2θ of 9° belonging to zein disappeared in XRD patterns of the prepared composites suggesting the successful coating of zein via hydrogen bonding interactions. SEM images proved the formation of semi-spherical zein microparticles in the FM/CMC matrix. TGA plots ascertained the addition of zein and nanocellulose caused a significant increase in the thermal stability of FM/CMC film, although zein showed a greater effect. The presence of zein and nanocellulose increased the mechanical strength of nanocomposites. The WVP of FM/CMC decreased after the incorporation of zein and nanocellulose, which created a tortuous path for the diffusion of water molecules. The zein particles exhibited a greater influence on improving the mechanical and barrier properties compared to nanocellulose. FM/CMC-Z film exhibited the highest mechanical strength (49.07 ± 5.89 MPa) and the lowest WVP (1.179 ± 0.076). The composites containing oregano essential oil (EO) showed higher than 60 % antibacterial properties. The bactericidal efficiency of FM/CMC/Z-EO and FM/CMC/Z-EO/BC1 nanocomposites decreased about 10% compared to FM/CMC/EO and FM/CMC-Z/BC1. This evidenced the successful encapsulation of EO molecules in zein particles. According to the in vitro release study, entrapment of EO into zein particles could delay the release and provide the extended antimicrobial effect.

A developed Takayanagi model to estimate the tensile modulus and interphase characteristics of polymer nanocellulose composites

This study analyzes the tensile modulus of nanocellulose-reinforced composites by developing the Takayanagi model considering the interphase section and filler size. The model accuracy is assessed by reported experimental moduli of composites and by parametric studies. The estimates of advanced model fit to the measured moduli of numerous examples. Also, it is revealed that the treatment of nanocellulose increases the modulus and thickness of interphase in nanocomposites. The relative modulus (Er) as the ratio of nanocomposite modulus to the modulus of matrix significantly changes when nanocellulose modulus (Ef) is raised from 50 to 100 GPa; however, Er unimportantly rises at Ef > 100 GPa. Additionally, nanocellulose radius (R) of 2 nm maximizes the Er to 1.636, though Er decreases to 1.09 at R = 58 nm and the variation of Er is insignificant at R > 20 nm. Furthermore, the interphase moduli (Ei) below 10 GPa meaningfully affect the nanocomposite modulus, but Ei > 10 GPa cannot cause the considerable change in Er. Therefore, Er does not change at the high levels of Ef, R and Ei.

Performance evaluation and efficiency of functionalized cellulose nanocomposites for the removal of pharmaceutical contaminants from the aqueous environment

Water pollution caused by pharmaceuticals has raised many concerns about the potential risks to human health and living organisms. Therefore, it is important to develop a high-efficiency adsorbent for the removal of organic pollutants from wastewater. Cellulose-based nanomaterials can be effectively used for wastewater treatment. In the present work, new nanocomposites are designed through the functionalization of cellulose with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD/Cell), cucurbit [6] (CUR/Cell), and calixarene (CAL/Cell) groups with Tetrafluoroterephthalonitrile (TFP) linker. Then, the adsorption of pharmaceutical agents such as propranolol (PRO), levofloxacin (LEV), and metformin (MET) is examined on nanocomposites as efficient adsorbents. The obtained results show that the systems containing the β-CD functional group have a higher adsorption for all three types of drugs compared to the other two nanocomposites. It should be noted that both types of interactions (Van der Waals and electrostatic) between β-CD/Cell and CAL/Cell nanocomposites with micropollutant molecules are significant, whereas, between CUR/Cell and drugs, the electrostatic interaction is dominant. Also, the most number of hydrogen bonds exist between the MET drug and nanocomposite membranes, which leads to stronger electrostatic interactions. In addition, our findings confirm that the system containing β-CD/Cell nanocomposite and LEV drug has the highest number of contacts (2300) at the beginning of the simulation and the most interaction energy (368.5 kJ/mol). It is worth mentioning that the negative values of the interaction energies show that all of the investigated drug molecules exothermically and spontaneously adsorbed on the surface of cellulose nanocomposites.

Development and Characterization of Epoxy/Banana Pseudo-Stem Nanocellulose (BPNC) Composites as Anti-Corrosion Coatings on Mild Steel

In the Philippines, bananas are one of the most exported agricultural products, with up to 6 million metric tons of annual harvest. Because of this, harvesting bananas generates waste like banana pseudo-stems. Banana pseudo-stems offer a good source of nanocellulose, and it was found that these have very similar chemical compositions to jute and sisal fibers, which are the most common sources of cellulose today. This only indicates that banana pseudo-stems could be utilized for different industrial and engineering applications. Epoxy-based nanocomposite coatings have attracted attention in industrial and engineering applications. Epoxy/banana pseudo-stem nanocellulose (Epoxy/BPNC) composites as anti-corrosive fillers were prepared by incorporating BPNC into the epoxy matrix to improve the anti-corrosion performance of epoxy coatings on mild steel surfaces. Their anti-corrosion properties were explored by the Tafel polarization technique under immersion in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solutions as corrosive medium. According to the results, it can be observed that epoxy/BPNC composite coatings significantly improve the anti-corrosion performance on mild steel surfaces with a 1.5 wt.% BPNC loading ratio as the optimized concentration. Furthermore, it can be seen that the optimized concentration of the BPNC loading ratio (1.5 wt.%) has a lower corrosion rate (CR = 2.7109 x 10-6 mm/year) compared to that of the bare mild steel (CR = 6.11190 x 10-2 mm/year). Additionally, the SEM results showed that the presence of BPNC in the epoxy matrix has a significant protective effect compared to pure epoxy alone.

In situ preparation and properties of polyvinyl alcohol/synthetic ribbon-like nanocellulose composites

This study presents a novel approach in which a dual network (DN) composite, comprising polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and ribbon-like nanocellulose (RC), was synthesized in one step using the volume exclusion effect involved in enzyme-catalyzed cellulose synthesis. Additionally, the impact of PVA as a crowding reagent during enzymatic catalysis on the in situ formation of nanocellulose and its resulting aspect ratio was explored. In contrast, the other two composites were created by incorporating enzyme-catalyzed synthetic block cellulose (BC) and its acid-hydrolyzed regenerated disc-shaped cellulose (DC) into the PVA. Subsequently, the mechanism by which three distinct types of nanocellulose, varying in morphology and size, was explored to elucidate their contributions to enhancing the properties of PVA. The results demonstrated that PVA/RC outperformed PVA/BC and PVA/DC. The elevated aspect ratio and intricate network structure of RCs not only significantly bolster the mechanical robustness of PVA/RC, leading in an 86.40 % surge in tensile strength and a remarkable 277.03 % rise in tensile modulus in comparison to pure PVA, but also induce a slight enhancement in elongation at break. Moreover, the thermal stability and biodegradability of PVA/RC was enhanced. Collectively, this study introduces an innovative strategy for the efficient fabrication of biodegradable composites with enhanced properties.

Injectable biocompatible nanocomposites of Prussian blue nanoparticles and bacterial cellulose as a safe and effective photothermal cancer therapy

Photothermal therapy (PTT) is a novel cancer treatment using a photoabsorber to cause hyperthermia to kill tumors by laser irradiation. Prussian blue nanoparticles (PB NPs) are considered as next-generation photothermal agents due to the facile synthesis and excellent absorption of near-infrared light. Although PB NPs demonstrate remarkable PTT capabilities, their clinical application is limited due to their systemic toxicity. Bacterial cellulose (BC) has been applied to various bio-applications based on its unique properties and biocompatibility. Herein, we design composites with PB NPs and BC as an injectable, highly biocompatible PTT agent (IBC-PB composites). Injectable bacterial cellulose (IBC) is produced through the trituration of BC, with PB NPs synthesized on the IBC surface to prepare IBC-PB composites. IBC-PB composites show in vitro and in vivo photothermal therapeutic effects similar to those of PB NPs but with significantly greater biocompatibility. Specifically, in vitro therapeutic index of IBC-PB composites is 26.5-fold higher than that of PB NPs. Furthermore, unlike PB NPs, IBC-PB composites exhibit no overt toxicity in mice as assessed by blood biochemical analysis and histological images. Hence, it is worth pursuing further research and development of IBC-PB composites as they hold promise as safe and efficacious PTT agents for clinical application.Graphical

Postbiotics in active food packaging: The contribution of cellulose nanocomposites

The food and pharmaceutical industries have developed innovative products containing probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics. According to International Scientific Association of Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP), 'postbiotics' are preparations of inanimate microorganisms and/or their components which have host health benefits. Postbiotic preparations contain short-chain fatty acids, exopolysaccharides, vitamins, enzymes, bacteriocins, and theic acid. Various postbiotics improve human and animal health. In addition, there is evidence of their action as a food bio-preservative. Food packaging is important in food products protection from environmental damage and microbial contamination. Natural active agents are proxy to chemical agents in food packaing, attributed to consumer demand and awareness. Natural biopolymers have become the subject of much interest as they reduce environmental problems due to their abundance, biocompatibility, biodegradability, chemical stability and non-toxicity. Cellulose nanostructures with physicochemical and antibacterial properties have been widely studied for diverse applications, including food packaging to extend the shelf life of packaged food products. In this context, the present review proposes to provide a thorough discussion on production technologies, characterization, biological activities and possible applications of postbiotics in active food packaging based on cellulose nanocomposites.

Silver phosphate–bacterial cellulose nanocomposites as visible light photocatalyst for wastewater purification

Silver phosphate (Ag3PO4) nanoparticles were deposited on bacterial cellulose (BC) nanofibrils as an eco-friendly, efficient, and reusable visible light active photocatalyst. BC–Ag3PO4 nanocomposites (BCAgP) with different BC/Ag3PO4 weight ratios were prepared by solution-precipitation method. The nanocomposites were characterized by UV-Visible diffuse reflection spectroscopy, XRD, FTIR, BET, and FESEM. Highly crystalline Ag3PO4 nanoparticles were well entrapped inside nano fibrillated BC matrix and eventually deposited along the fibers. Photocatalytic activity of the BCAgP nanocomposites were investigated by dye degradation experiments under solar light. The composite with BC: Ag3PO4 weight ratio of 1:4 (BCAgP14) showed the highest photocatalytic efficiency compared to other weight ratios and pure Ag3PO4. The sample also shows good photocatalytic activity even after 4 runs indicating its photostability. Higher photocatalytic efficiency of BCAgP14 nanocomposite was explained due to optimum Ag3PO4 loading and higher visible light absorption capacity. Bacterial cellulose is supposed to improve the photocatalytic activity of silver phosphate by promoting the adsorption of dyes and extending the charge recombination time under visible light of Ag3PO4 photocatalyst.

An advanced oxidized bacterial cellulose platform for improving the photocatalysis performance of BiOCl

Herein, we present a high-performance flower-like BiOCl-oxidized bacterial cellulose (BiOCl-OBC) nanocomposites were designed and developed employing sustainable bacterial cellulose (BC) as regulator through a simple hydrothermal synthesis method. OBC has abundant hydroxide ions, and Bi3+ is entangled and dispersed in OBC solution, which promotes the in-situ growth of BiOCl nanosheets on OBC fiber network, forming BiOCL-OBC composite materials similar to flowers and changing their surface properties. Due to the negatively charged of BiOCl-OBC composites, the Rhodamine B (RhB) cationic dye was easily to adsorbed to its surface, which facilitates the occurrence of photosensitization and photocatalysis in the reaction. BiOCl-OBC composites exhibited high photocatalytic degradation performance for RhB under multi-mode illumination conditions; the cycle test results show that the BiOCl-OBC composite has good stability and recyclability. Finally, the photocatalytic degradation mechanism of BiOCl-OBC composites was discussed. Therefore, the OBC is expected to be used as a modifier for the surface modification to improve the photocatalytic performance of BiOCl and the BiOCl-OBC nanocomposite is a novel promising candidate as adsorbent photocatalysts with visible illumination reaction.

Recent development in the formation and surface modification of cellulose-bead nanocomposites as adsorbents for water purification: a comprehensive review

Abstract Water pollution is an issue of global concern that demands effective and sustainable solutions through water purification. Adsorption is a popular method for water treatment because it is inexpensive and has a high performance rate. Although commercial activated carbon is the generally preferred adsorbent for adsorption, its widespread use is affected by the high cost and challenges encountered during column adsorption. Biopolymers like cellulose and its derivatives have the potential to replace expensive adsorbents due to their unique characteristics. In recent years, cellulose-bead nanocomposites have gained significant attention as promising adsorbents due to their ability to circumvent the challenges encountered when using powdered adsorbents. To fabricate cellulose beads, cellulose fiber is separated from its source, dissolved in appropriate solvents, shaped into spherical particles and subsequently modified (via esterification, oxidation, crosslinking agents, etc.) to improve its adsorption capacity. This comprehensive review paper presents a detailed analysis of the recent development in the formation and surface modification of 3-D structured cellulose nanocomposites. The outcome of this review on modified cellulose-bead demonstrates their successful fabrication and high adsorption capacities for different contaminants. It is anticipated that cellulose beads, as a bio-adsorbent in industrial settings, will be a low-cost alternative to the more expensive adsorbents shortly.

Oil-in-Water Pickering Emulsions Stabilized with Nanostructured Biopolymers: A Venue for Templating Bacterial Cellulose.

Pickering emulsions (PEs) differ from conventional emulsions in the use of solid colloidal particles as stabilizing agents instead of traditional amphiphilic molecules. Nanostructured biopolymers (NBs) emerge as a promising alternative for PE stabilization owing to their remarkable biocompatibility, abundant availability, and low cost. To explore this potential, a study is herein presented, in which cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), both type I and type II allomorphs, and chitin nanocrystals (ChNCs) were used for stabilizing oil-in-water PEs prepared by the use of ultrasound. Sunflower oil was selected as the oil phase as it offers the advantages of being edible, renewable, and inexpensive. By utilizing ζ-potential, static light diffraction, and visual observations, we determined the optimal oil/water ratio for each type of NB to obtain stable emulsions after 14 days. The optimized PEs were used to form bacterial nanocellulose composites through emulsion templating. To our knowledge, this study represents a pioneering work in exploiting oil-in-water PEs for this approach. Additionally, it entails the first utilization of nonmercerized type II CNCs as stabilizers for PEs, while also establishing a direct comparison among the most relevant NBs. The resulting composites exhibited a unique morphology, composed of larger pores compared to standard bacterial nanocellulose aerogels. These findings highlight the notable potential of NBs as stabilizers for PEs and their ability to generate green nanocomposites with tailored properties.

Composition Gradient Cellulose–Aerogel Nanocomposites Regulating Thermal Insulation

Over the last few decades, functional gradient structures have evolved through natural biological systems, while gradient structures lead to tailored mechanical and physical performance due to the gradual structural change. Herein, composition gradient cellulose and aerogel nanocomposites that regulate their thermal insulation and mechanical performance are reported. The as‐prepared gradient composite shows a thermal conductivity of 32.2 mW m−1 K−1 and flexural modulus of 660 MPa while exhibiting superhydrophobicity and superior reusability. The unique orientation‐dependent thermal insulation and mechanical strength arise from the composition gradients formed by the silica aerogel distribution during the cellulose‐fiber‐percolated network formation, which opens a pathway toward green building thermal insulation materials.

Effect of Laser Radiation on the Linear and Nonlinear Optical Characteristics of Polyvinyl Alcohol/Carboxymethyl Cellulose/Nickel Oxide Nanocomposite Films

A nanocomposite (NC) of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), and nickel oxide (NiO) nanoparticles (NP) was prepared using sol–gel and ex-situ casting techniques. The results indicated that the NiO had a single phase with the space group (R-3m). Its average grain size was 18 nm. We used an infrared pulsed laser to irradiate the PVA/CMC/NiO NC samples with energy fluences ranging from 4 to 16 Joule/cm2. The induced changes in the linear and nonlinear optical properties of the NC samples due to the laser irradiation were investigated by means of UV spectroscopy. When the laser fluence increased up to 16 Joule/cm2, the maximum fluence used, both the direct and indirect bandgaps decreased. Additionally, we used the optical dielectric loss (ε″) to detect the type of microelectronic transition for the PVA/CMC/NiO NC samples, which was found to be a direct allowed transition. The laser effects on the absorbance, extinction coefficient, refractive index, dielectric parameters, optical conductivity, and the nonlinear parameters of the NC were studied. The enhancement in the optical properties indicated that the laser radiation is a useful tool that allows the application of the resulting PVA/CMC/NiO NC in optoelectronic devices.