Cause Of Low Fertility Research Articles

Single-cell RNA sequencing of human oocytes reveals a differential transcriptomic profile associated with agar-like zona pellucida

BackgroundAgar-like zona pellucida (ZP) is the most common type of abnormal ZP, and is one of the causes of low fertility or infertility. However, the molecular mechanism of agar-like ZP is unclear. Single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) analysis was used to assess the cellular and molecular landscape of oocytes with agar-like ZP.MethodsHuman metaphase I (MI) oocytes were collected from four patients with agar-like ZP and four healthy donors. Total RNA was isolated, cDNA was synthesized, and libraries were generated and subsequently sequenced on a HiSeq 2500 instrument. The scRNA-seq data were analyzed with R software.ResultsWe identified 1320 genes that were differentially expressed between agar-like ZP oocytes and healthy donor oocytes. Gene Ontology term enrichment results showed that the genes downregulated in agar-like ZP oocytes were significantly related to extracellular matrix organization, while the genes upregulated in agar-like ZP oocytes were significantly related to the regulation of response to DNA damage stimulus. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment results showed that genes were enriched in the ECM-receptor interaction pathway and focal adhesion pathway. Other signaling pathways important in oocyte development were also enriched, such as PI3K-Akt. Differential expression analysis identified UBC, TLR4, RELA, ANXA5, CAV1, KPNA2, CCNA2, ACTA2, FYN and ITGB3 as genetic markers of oocytes with agar-like ZP.ConclusionsOur findings suggest that agar-like ZP oocytes exhibit significant downregulation of genes involved in the ECM-receptor interaction signaling pathway and focal adhesion pathway, which could lead to aberrant ZP formation, while the upregulated genes were significantly related to regulation of the response to DNA damage stimulus. Agar-like ZP formation may interfere with the normal exchange of signals between oocytes and perivitelline granulosa cells, thereby preventing cumulus cells from participating in oocyte DNA damage repair and causing MI arrest.

Phospholipase C Zeta 1 (PLCZ1): The Function and Potential for Fertility Assessment and In Vitro Embryo Production in Cattle and Horses.

Phospholipase C Zeta 1 (PLCZ1) is considered a major sperm-borne oocyte activation factor. After gamete fusion, PLCZ1 triggers calcium oscillations in the oocyte, resulting in oocyte activation. In assisted fertilization, oocyte activation failure is a major cause of low fertility. Most cases of oocyte activation failures in humans related to male infertility are associated with gene mutations and/or altered PLCZ1. Consequently, PLCZ1 evaluation could be an effective diagnostic marker and predictor of sperm fertilizing potential for in vivo and in vitro embryo production. The characterization of PLCZ1 has been principally investigated in men and mice, with less known about the PLCZ1 impact on assisted reproduction in other species, such as cattle and horses. In horses, sperm PLCZ1 varies among stallions, and sperm populations with high PLCZ1 are associated with cleavage after intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). In contrast, bull sperm is less able to initiate calcium oscillations and undergo nuclear remodeling, resulting in poor cleavage after ICSI. Advantageously, injections of PLCZ1 are able to rescue oocyte failure in mouse oocytes after ICSI, promoting full development and birth. However, further research is needed to optimize PLCZ1 diagnostic tests for consistent association with fertility and to determine whether PLCZ1 as an oocyte-activating treatment is a physiological, efficient, and safe method for improving assisted fertilization in cattle and horses.

Fatty acid metabolic pathway analysis in epididymal adipose and testis in obese mice

It had been proved obesity was one of the main causes of low fertility or infertility in males. In this paper, the fatty acid content of mice epididymal adipose and testis induced by high fat diet was detected by gas chromatography-hydrogen ion flame detector method. Then, the effects of obesity on fatty acid metabolism of mouse epididymal adipose and testis were analyzed by principal component analysis and T-test combined with KEGG pathway. In this way the mechanism of obesity on reproductive system was expounded from the level of fatty acid metabolism. The results were as follows. After feeding the 45% fat diet for 12 weeks, the body weight, BMI, serum TG and CHOL of high fat diet mice were significantly higher than the control group, which meant high fat diet successfully induced obesity and the obese mice developed metabolic abnormalities. Although the weight and the organ coefficient of epididymal adipose and testis in obese mice did not change significantly, principal component analysis showed that there were significant differences in the fatty acid patterns in epididymal adipose of the two groups. Further data mining revealed that the total fatty acids in the epididymal adipose of obese mice decreased significantly. Not only the saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids synthesized by mice their own decreased significantly, but also the n3n6 series polyunsaturated fatty acids caused by exogenous foods or tissue decomposition reduced obviously, while the n6/n3 ratio remained stable. That indicated the epididymal adipose in mice developed fat remodeling with the occurrence of obesity. The C10:0, C12:0 and C16:1n7 contents in testis in obese mice were significantly increased, which might effect the reproductive function of males.

Embryological Characteristics of Human Oocytes With Agar-Like Zona Pellucida and Its Clinical Treatment Strategy.

Zona pellucida (ZP) abnormalities are the cause of low fertility or infertility, agar-like ZP is more common in abnormal ZP. The purpose of this exploration is to systematically analyze the fertilization competence of agar-like ZP oocytes, the development characteristics of subsequent embryos as well as the results of embryo transfer, aiming to explore effective clinical treatment strategies. A total of 58 patients with agar-like ZP were set as the case group and the control group involved 3866 patients, in which the patients’ oocytes presented normal ZP. BMI, basal hormone levels, and hormone levels were similar in both groups. The case patients suffered significantly longer infertility years than control (p<0.05), and most patients were diagnosed with pelvic inflammatory diseases. A distinct difference was observed in the structure of oocyte corona cumulus complexes between the two groups. The embryo development parameters, which include the rates of cleavage, high-quality embryo, blastocyst, and high-quality blastocyst in the case group were greatly lower than that in the control group (p<0.05). The rates of cumulative clinical pregnancy and live birth were comparable between the two groups. In the subsequent follow-up, thirty-four of the 58 patients receiving intracytoplasmic single sperm injection (ICSI) or early rescue ICSI (R-ICSI) treatment successfully gave birth to babies, and all of the newborns were with no neonatal defects. In addition, the fertilization rate of the R-ICSI group was significantly lower than that of the ICSI group (p<0.05). The occurrence of agar-like ZP impairs the development competence of human oocytes, however, the human oocytes with agar-like ZP can develop into healthy offspring, and an ICSI regimen is the optimal treatment strategy for them.

Progesterone supplementation to improve fertility of selected subgroups of lactating cows during the summer and fall.

One major cause of low fertility of cows in the summer is progesterone deficiency. We found that insertion of a controlled intravaginal drug-releasing (CIDR) device containing progesterone after artificial insemination (AI) increases pregnancy per AI (P/AI) in cows with uterine disease and low body condition score after calving. Here, we treated only these two subgroups, during the summer and autumn. Control (n=191 AI) and treatment (n=230 AI) cows were inseminated at estrus and the treated group received a CIDR device on day 5 post-AI, for 14 days. Overall analysis of data during the summer and autumn indicated no significant differences between treatment and control groups. Analysis of the summer data only indicated a significant effect of treatment: P/AI was higher in CIDR-treated vs. control groups (34.2% vs. 19.3%; p < .038). Results indicated a 15% increase in P/AI during the summer for CIDR-treated cows in subgroups that had responded positively to the progesterone treatment.

THE ROLE OF THE INFECTIOUS FACTOR IN MISCARRIAGE

Abstract: The article considers the pathogenetic role of the infectious factor in miscarriage. In the Russian Federation, one of the main causes of low fertility is reproductive losses. The main causes of miscarriage have been identified, among which infectious and inflammatory processes of the genitals play an important role. It is noted that every year there is an increase in the incidence of inflammatory diseases of the pelvic organs among women of reproductive age. It is proved that among women with a history of miscarriage, the incidence of endometritis is several times higher than among women without a burdened gynecological and obstetric history. The pathogenetic aspects of chronic endometritis during miscarriage are diverse, but it has been determined with accuracy that this pathology can lead to further reproductive losses. It was revealed that not only an infectious lesion of the endometrium is a risk factor for miscarriage. Infectious and dysbiotic processes of other genitals also negatively affect the course of pregnancy, and can lead to reproductive losses. The systemic effect of pathogenic microflora on the reproductive system, which is realized by systemic endotoxinemia, is considered. The main pathogens of gram-positive and gram-negative microflora and the pathogenesis of their effects leading to miscarriage are shown. The main directions of prevention of the development of inflammatory diseases of the pelvic organs and their complications are shown. The importance of carrying out sanitary and educational work among women, especially teenage girls, was noted.

Postpartum cows showed high oocyte triacylglycerols concurrently with high plasma free fatty acids

Impaired oocyte quality is one of the main causes of low fertility in modern high-yielding dairy cows. One of the potential factors of the impaired oocyte quality is the effects of free fatty acids (FFA). In fact, high FFA supplementation to culture media exacerbated oocyte developmental competence in vitro. Meanwhile, artificially induced high blood FFA levels in heifers did not affect the lipid composition of oocytes in vivo; however, the oocyte lipid profile of postpartum cows has not yet been investigated. Therefore, the profile of lipids involved in energy metabolism, including FFA and triacylglycerols (TAG), and their relationship between plasma and oocytes were compared among cows at different lactation stages. Heifers were used as a control group that was not affected by lactation. Plasma and oocytes were collected from heifers (n = 4) and 14 Holstein cows categorized to the early lactation stage: 25–47 days in milk (DIM) (n = 6), peak lactation stage: 61–65 DIM (n = 4), and middle lactation stage: 160–202 DIM (n = 4). The FFA and TAG profiles of plasma and oocytes were examined by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. Plasma FFA positively correlated with oocyte TAG (P < 0.05). Plasma FFA and oocyte TAG were significantly higher in cows in the early lactation stage than in heifers (P < 0.05), while the peak and middle lactation stage groups had intermediate levels. The proportion of oleic acid in plasma increased concurrently with elevations in total FFA, while the compositions of oocyte FFA and TAG fatty acyls were constant regardless of plasma FFA concentration or oocyte TAG content. The present results suggest that high postpartum plasma FFA concentrations affect the quantity of oocyte TAG. Taken together with the adverse effects of high FFA concentrations on oocyte developmental competence in vitro, oocyte quality in postpartum cows may be impaired due to high circulating FFA concentrations. These results provide a more detailed understanding of the effects of postpartum high circulating FFA concentrations on the low fertility of cows.

P–073 High-intensity interval training modulates the effects of hypertension on inflammatory mediators in testis in adult spontaneously hypertensive rats

Abstract Study question Is the high-intensity interval training (HIIT) able to prevent the increase of the inflammatory proteins in the testis of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR)? Summary answer HIIT for 8 weeks inhibits the increase of the tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) and the interleukin 6 (IL6) in the testis of SHR. What is known already Hypertension increases the inflammatory cytokines of the cardiovascular system, causing damage in the microcirculation and in the testes. Hypertension is a cause of low fertility in men and exercises are indicated to decrease blood pressure and improve overall health. HIIT is characterized by short periods of exercise, with an intensity equal to or greater than the anaerobic threshold, separated by recovery periods. HIIT can be indicated for cardiac patients, as this type of training improves the cardiac autonomic nervous system and lipemic control in both hypertensive and normotensive individuals. Study design, size, duration Male Wistar-Kyoto rats without hypertension and SHRs were divided into 3 groups (n = 4): WKY (Wistar-Kyoto); SHR; and SHR-HIIT (SHRs that performed HIIT). The HIIT was realized in treadmill for 5 days/week for 8 weeks. HIIT started with 5 times of 4 minutes of 100% of the maximum exhaust speed, with active rest intervals of 3 minutes at 60%. There was an increase of once every week until reaching 7 times each session. Participants/materials, setting, methods Samples from testicles were used for immunostainig IL6 and TNFα. After the blocking, the sections were subjected to reaction of specific antibodies IL6 (1:50, E–4, sc–28343) and TNFα (1:50, 52B83, sc–257) at 4ºC overnight, and with secondary antibodies m-IgGK (1:200, IgG-HRP, sc–516) at room temperature for 2 hours. Diaminobenzidine (1:50) was used against Harris stained with Hematoxylin and evaluated in the photomicroscope. Data were analyzed by One-Way ANOVA followed by Tukey post test (P &amp;lt; 0.05). Main results and the role of chance The immunostainig of IL6 was higher in SHR (10.23 ± 0.47) than in SHR-HIIT (8.69 ± .44) group (P = 0,0237). From the same perspective, immunoexpression of TNFα was higher in SHR (10.10 ± 0.42) than WKY (8.24 ± 0.24) and SHR-HIIT (7.82 ± 0.39) groups (P = 0.0018). Limitations, reasons for caution As a limitation of the study, we have no measurement of fertility parameters to affirm that the HIIT improve the fertility because of the reduction of inflammatory mediators. Wider implications of the findings: The hypertension drugs have a negative effect on fertility. HIIT can be suggested as a treatment for hypertension as an alternative to medication, since HIIT can inhibit the increase of the inflammatory mediators in testis and its consequences to the reproduction. Financial support by São Paulo Research foundation, FAPESP (2018/22682–0). Trial registration number 2018/22682–0

Ocena skuteczności programu „Rodzina 500+” w zakresie ograniczenia ubóstwa i zwiększenia dzietności w Polsce

Objective: The article evaluates the effectiveness of Poland’s “Family 500+” programme in reducing poverty and increasing the fertility rate.Research Design &amp; Methods: The research method used is analysis of statistical data and source literature in Polish and English.Findings: The study proves that Poland’s “Family 500+” programme has been partially effective. The additional child allowance has helped reduce poverty, but has not noticeably increased the fertility rate.Implications / Recommendations: A number of pro-natalist barriers coupled with a fertility rate persistently below 2.0 since the early 1990s has meant that financial aid alone cannot sufficiently encourage Poles to start a family. Demographic development stimulation should consist of comprehensive policies, including not only financial transfers but particularly activities mitigating the negative effects of socio-cultural changes.Contribution: The article evaluates the effectiveness of the “Family 500+” programme, and thus the economic validity of introducing the most expensive family policy in the history of the Third Republic of Poland. The paper provides a multidimensional view on the causes of low fertility and the socio-economic consequences of lowering the poverty rate.

Uncovering sperm metabolome to discover biomarkers for bull fertility

BackgroundSubfertility decreases the efficiency of the cattle industry because artificial insemination employs spermatozoa from a single bull to inseminate thousands of cows. Variation in bull fertility has been demonstrated even among those animals exhibiting normal sperm numbers, motility, and morphology. Despite advances in research, molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the causes of low fertility in some bulls have not been fully elucidated. In this study, we investigated the metabolic profile of bull spermatozoa using non-targeted metabolomics. Statistical analysis and bioinformatic tools were employed to evaluate the metabolic profiles high and low fertility groups. Metabolic pathways associated with the sperm metabolome were also reported.ResultsA total of 22 distinct metabolites were detected in spermatozoa from bulls with high fertility (HF) or low fertility (LF) phenotype. The major metabolite classes of bovine sperm were organic acids/derivatives and fatty acids/conjugates. We demonstrated that the abundance ratios of five sperm metabolites were statistically different between HF and LF groups including gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), carbamate, benzoic acid, lactic acid, and palmitic acid. Metabolites with different abundances in HF and LF bulls had also VIP scores of greater than 1.5 and AUC- ROC curves of more than 80%. In addition, four metabolic pathways associated with differential metabolites namely alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism, β-alanine metabolism, glycolysis or gluconeogenesis, and pyruvate metabolism were also explored.ConclusionsThis is the first study aimed at ascertaining the metabolome of spermatozoa from bulls with different fertility phenotype using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. We identified five metabolites in the two groups of sires and such molecules can be used, in the future, as key indicators of bull fertility.

Can post-milking insemination increase conception rate in high-producing Holstein cows under heat stress? A retrospective study

AbstractHeat stress, especially in countries with hot climates, is a major cause of low fertility in high-producing dairy herds. Management strategies are needed to help producers improve the reproductive performance of their dairy animals under such conditions. The current study aims to evaluate the effects of pre- and post-milking insemination on the conception rate (CR) in dairy cows. The dataset included 1294 insemination records leading to pregnancy in 708 lactating Holstein dairy cows. The GLIMMIX model procedure of SAS based on the generalized linear mixed model methodology was used to analyse the results of insemination (success or failure) as a binomial distribution with the logit link function. Differences were observed in CRs between pre- and post-milking insemination. The pregnancy odds ratio (OR) for post-milking insemination relative to that for pre-milking one was estimated at 1.90 [1.23‒2.91; 95% confidence interval (CI)]. Different levels of interaction were obtained between average daily milk production and time of insemination. In the high-producing group, the pregnancy OR for the post-milking relative to that for the pre-milking insemination was estimated at 3.53 (2.00‒6.24; 95% CI). A significant interaction effect was obtained between insemination time and the temperature-humidity index. A pregnancy OR of 2.52 (1.22‒4.14; 95% CI) was recorded for the cows inseminated after milking on days with higher levels of heat and humidity stress v. the pre-milking inseminated ones. Based on the results, post-milking insemination of high-producing cows increased CRs, especially on days with high heat and humidity stress.

Up-regulated mRNA expression of some anti-inflammatory mediators in bovine oviduct epithelial cells by urea in vitro: Cellular pathways by Reactome analysis

Increased urea concentration is a major cause of low fertility in dairy cows fed high-protein diets. A strong correlation exists between the urea concentration in the blood and oviduct fluid of dairy cows. In this study, bovine oviduct epithelial cells (BOECs) were incubated with varying concentrations of urea (0, 20, 40, and 80 mg/dL) in the absence of ovarian sex steroids (estradiol and progesterone) and luteinizing hormone. The 80 mg/dL urea reduced the cell viability, and thus was excluded in further analysis. Compared to the control (U0), the 20 mg/dL urea (U20) increased the mRNA expression of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4, interleukin (IL) 10, IL4, and prostaglandin (PG) E synthase (mPGES) but decreased the mRNA expression of tumor necrosis factor α (TNFA). Compared to U0, the 40 mg/dL urea (U40) decreased the mRNA expression of TNFA and increased alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP). U40 also increased TLR2, IL10, and IL4 mRNA expression compared to U0. In addition, compared to U20, the U40 decreased the mRNA expression of TLR4 and IL1B but increased that of AGP and TLR2. Subsequently, the mRNA expression data were then projected into the Reactome database. The Reactome analysis showed that pathways, including cytokine signaling in the immune system (i.e., TNFs bind their physiological receptors) and death receptor signaling (i.e., TNF signaling), were down-regulated in the presence of urea compared to the U0 group. These in vitro data implied that high urea level can alter the balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory responses in BOECs, thus providing a suboptimal environment for the early reproductive events or a weakened innate immune system, predisposing the oviduct to infections.

Religions and low fertility today

Our understanding of whether, to what extent, and under which conditions religions nowadays influence birth levels depends on research. It is important to seek answers to two fundamental questions. The first question is about the role of religiosity and religious affiliation in the deterministic cause of low fertility and family planning in recent times. The second question deals with the influence of religious institutions on birth levels and the exercise of reproductive rights at the global level and within certain population groups over recent decades. To that end, the paper provides an overview of theoretical examinations of the connection between religions and fertility, empirical studies addressing low completed fertility, birth control, or sexual behaviour in relation to religiosity or religious affiliation of individuals, as well as the influence of religious institutions on fertility transition and the respect of human rights in this field. A review of the recent studies of various populations characterised by low birth levels shows that religiosity, especially practising religion, encourages people to uphold traditional values, attitudes, and behaviours that are directly or indirectly related to the concepts of marriage and childbearing. Moreover, it sheds light on some examples of religious institutions? concrete opposition to progress in this area, while also highlighting contradictory cases of religions supporting pro-found contemporary changes in reproductive behaviour.

153 Sperm metabolomic landscape associated with bull fertility

Sub-fertility fertility in bulls decreases the efficiency and profitability of cattle production because AI allows a single bull to inseminate thousands of cows. In recent decades, there has been a general decline in fertility of bulls, even among those exhibiting normal sperm motility and morphology. Despite advances in technology and knowledge, molecular, cellular and physiological mechanisms underlying the causes of low fertility in bulls are currently unclear. Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify sperm metabolites associated with fertility in Holstein bulls. The metabolome of sperm from 10 mature bulls with high fertility (HF, n=5) and low fertility (LF, n=5) was identified by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Bull fertility was based on the sire conception rates deviating from the average. Statistical analysis was performed by using MetaboAnalyst 3.0 (http://www.metaboanalyst.ca/). A total of 22 metabolites were detected and categorized according to their major chemical classes, including amino acids, peptides/analogues, carbohydrates/carbohydrate conjugates, fatty acids, steroids/steroid derivatives, keto acids and derivatives, carboxylic acids, and other organic and inorganic compounds. Organic acids and derivatives as well as fatty acids were the major compounds in bull spermatozoa. Seven organic acids and derivatives were detected, including benzoic acid, carbonate, carbamate dimethyl, carbamate trimethyl, lactic acid, oxalic acid, and urea. Five fatty acids were identified including oleic acid, oleanitrile, nonanoic acid, and palmitic acid. Oleic acid, phosphoric acid, phosphine, carbamate trimethyl, and glycerol were the most abundant metabolites in bull sperm, whereas benzoic acid, acetic acid, l-serine, carbamate, and 2-ketobutyric acid were the least predominant metabolites present in bull sperm. Multivariate analysis (partial least squares-discriminant analysis) of the sperm metabolome showed a clear separation between HF and LF bulls. Variable importance in projection (VIP) score demonstrated that metabolites with VIP &amp;gt;1.5 were gamma-aminobutyric acid (VIP=2.01), carbamate trimethyl (VIP=1.88), benzoic acid (VIP=1.86), and lactic acid (VIP=1.81). Abundance ratios of gamma-aminobutyric acid, carbamate trimethyl, benzoic acid, and lactic acid was greater in HF bulls compared with LF animals. According to univariate analysis, abundance ratios of gamma-aminobutyric acid (P=0.03) and carbamate trimethyl (P=0.047) were greater in HF than in LF bulls. Gamma-aminobutyric acid was positively correlated with carbamate trimethyl (r=0.94; P&amp;lt;0.0001) and benzoic acid (r=0.74; P=0.0139). Benzoic acid was positively correlated with carbamate trimethyl (r=0.75; P=0.0107) and carbamate dimethyl (r=0.68; P=0.0274). The identified metabolites can serve as potential markers to evaluate semen quality and predict bull fertility.

Modern Russian family: the diagnostics of the decisions using the theory of games

Annotation: This article includes the main directions of family development in modern Russia. The purpose of the study is to justify the need for government support for the family. The subject of the study are the decisions of the modern Russian family regarding the taking of mortgages and the birth of children.&#x0D; To achieve the goal, the following tasks were set: to consider the main decisions taken by the modern Russian family, depending on the family income, using game theory to analyze these decisions and interpreting the results. The main methods for conducting the study were analysis, formalization, induction, etc.&#x0D; The result of the work is the identification of a number of causes of low fertility in most Russian families, as well as the identification of the main directions of assistance to the family institution on the part of the state.

Ronald R. Rindfuss and Minja Kim Choe (Eds.) Low and Lower Fertility: Variations across Developed Countries Springer, 2015. 196 p. $129.00; $122.55 (pbk).Ronald R. Rindfuss and Minja Kim Choe (Eds.) Low Fertility, Institutions, and their Policies: Variati

Over recent decades fertility throughout the developed world has declined to below the replacement level, with fertility in some countries falling to one birth per woman. This trend has become a concern for policymakers primarily because low fertility is resulting in rapid aging of populations. Aging in turn threatens the viability of social security and health care systems, which for the most part rely on pay-as-you-go financing, i.e., the contributions of the working-age population. These two volumes contain the revised papers from two workshops conducted in December 2013 and August 2014 and organized by the Korean Institute for Health and Social Affairs and the East-West Center. The first volume includes chapters on Australia, China, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Netherlands, Singapore, and the United States. The second covers Austria, Canada, Czech Republic, France, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Spain, Taiwan, and the United Kingdom. While this set of countries is representative of the developed world, a few large countries—in particular Germany and Russia—are excluded. Each chapter is written by a country expert who presents recent fertility trends and discusses the social, economic, institutional, historical, and cultural factors affecting fertility as well as policies. In addition to the country chapters, each volume contains an introductory chapter by the editors that summarizes the key themes that run through the volume, including labor market factors, child care availability, parental leave, gender equity, education system, availability of housing, and government subsidies. A final chapter provides a cross-country comparison of individual perceptions about obstacles to having children, based on survey data, and government support for families. The central puzzle the authors address is the lack of a simple explanation for the diversity of fertility levels (ranging from 2.1 to 1). The main message is that a wide range of factors affect fertility positively or negatively and that this multiplicity of factors differs from country to country, yielding a unique net outcome. Any given level of fertility can be reached through different pathways. Additional complexity results from variation in causes over time. Government policy can affect fertility levels through a wide range of subsidies and regulations, although effects of specific interventions tend to be small. The role of government as measured by the percent of GDP devoted to family benefits ranges from 3.5 percent in Nordic countries to less than 1.5 percent in Southern Europe, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. It is not surprising that the level of public investments in families correlates positively with the level of fertility. The two volumes are an invaluable resource for students, researchers, and policymakers, providing comprehensive and highly informative expositions of the causes of low fertility in high-income countries.

A Case for 'Reverse One-Child' Policies in Japan and South Korea? Examining the Link between Education Costs and Lowest-Low Fertility

Household spending on children’s pre-tertiary education is exceptionally high in Japan and South Korea, and has been cited as a cause of low fertility. Previous research attributes this high spending to a cultural emphasis on education in East Asian countries. In this paper, we argue that institutional factors, namely higher education and labor market systems, play an important role in reinforcing the pressure on parents to invest in their children’s education. We review evidence showing that graduating from a prestigious university has very high economic and social returns in Japan and South Korea, and examine the implications for fertility within the framework of quantity-quality models. Finally, we put forward ‘reverse one-child’ policies that directly address the unintended consequences of these institutional factors on fertility. These policies have the additional virtues of having very low fiscal requirements and reducing social inequality.

Reproductive disorders in dairy cattle under semi-intensive system of rearing in North-Eastern India.

Aim:This study was conducted to determine the incidence of major reproductive problems of dairy cattle reared under a semi-intensive system by small and marginal farmers in Meghalaya province of North-Eastern India.Materials and Methods:In a 3 years study, a total of 576 crossbred dairy cattle (212 Holstein Friesian cross and 364 Jersey cross) from all districts (n=11) of Meghalaya were assessed with the survey, clinical examination, and personal observations.Results:Out of the total animal assessed, 33.85% (n=195) were found to be affected with one or more of the clinical reproductive problems. Repeat breeding (RB), anestrus, retention of fetal membrane, and abortion were found to be the major clinical reproductive problems. Out of the total animal affected with reproductive disorders, the incidence of anestrus, RB, retention of fetal membrane, and abortion was found to be 31.79% (n=62), 24.61% (n=48), 14.35% (n=28), and 11.25% (n=22), respectively. In addition, dystocia (5.12%), prolapse (1.53%), endometritis (4.61%), and pyometra (6.66%) were minor clinical reproductive problems. There was a significant difference in the incidence of reproductive disorders with respect to breed, age, and parity.Conclusion:It was revealed from this study that RB, anestrus, retention of fetal membrane, and dystocia are the major clinical reproductive problems in Meghalaya. Results indicated unsatisfactory feeding, housing, and health management practices are the main cause of low fertility of dairy cows. Lack of scientific knowledge, low access to breeding, and health services further contributed to low productivity and fertility.

A Case for "Reverse One-Child" Policies in Japan and South Korea? Examining the Link between Education Costs and Lowest-Low Fertility.

Household spending on children's pre-tertiary education is exceptionally high in Japan and South Korea, and has been cited as a cause of low fertility. Previous research attributes this high spending to a cultural emphasis on education in East Asian countries. In this paper, we argue that institutional factors, namely higher education and labor market systems, play an important role in reinforcing the pressure on parents to invest in their children's education. We review evidence showing that graduating from a prestigious university has very high economic and social returns in Japan and South Korea, and examine the implications for fertility within the framework of quantity-quality models. Finally, we put forward 'reverse one-child' policies that directly address the unintended consequences of these institutional factors on fertility. These policies have the additional virtues of having very low fiscal requirements and reducing social inequality.

Stephen Robert Nagy (ed.), Japan's Demographic Revival: Rethinking Migration, Identity and Sociocultural Norms Singapore: World Scientific Publishing, 2016. xxvii + 410 p. $128.58.

Japan, recently headlined by The Economist as “the incredible shrinking country,” is by most accounts clearly in need of demographic revival. This collection of essays points to some of the formidable difficulties an activist population policy would face, whether directed at fertility or migration. Its intention, according to the editor, is to widen the policy discussion from migrant numbers as the sole remedy for the country's population decline to “the structural, organizational, and cultural impediments” that contribute to the demographic predicament. Fertility enters as a minor part of the picture, as if little there can be done. A chapter explores the cultural background of Japan's low marriage rate, which given the minimal extent of extra-marital childbearing is a major proximate cause of low fertility. Another points to the conflict between women's childraising and career goals, blamed on employers’ persisting intransigence even as many more women enter the labor force. An only slightly positive slant is given in a case study of adherents (several million families, it is claimed) of the new religion Soka Gakkai, whose doctrines are mildly pronatalist. The migration chapters range more widely. Emphasizing the ideational obstacles to a multicultural Japan, it is noted that the last significant waves of immigrants to be smoothly assimilated into Japan's cultural space ended in the twelfth century—thereafter, the myth of the homogeneous nation took root, one that “has provided its constituents with existential equanimity” for many generations. The history of the Family Registration System and the Alien Registration Law is recounted, tracing the slow emergence of a more unified population management system, albeit one still with nationality determined by family registration rather than at the individual level. Japan's naturalization procedures are depicted as drawn-out and opaque, admitting in recent years a mere 10–15,000 foreign nationals annually, mostly Koreans and Chinese. The cautionary tale is offered of the Brazilians of Japanese ancestry welcomed in the 1990s but never culturally accepted and whose children now have no clear linguistic identity. Temporary migration is explored in several chapters. One presents a positive assessment of the program that recruits care workers from the Philippines and Indonesia, modest in size and subject to demanding nursing credentials and language facility. Another looks skeptically at the solution to labor shortages exemplified by the helot societies of the Gulf States—some with 60–80 percent of their populations non-citizens, most of them migrant laborers rather than skilled expatriates. A concluding chapter by the editor contrasts the migration integration experiences of Tokyo with Hong Kong and Vancouver—only the last of these seen as a qualified success. The contributors are a mixture of scholars and PhD students, the majority at Japanese universities. The editor is in the Department of Politics, International Christian University, Tokyo and the Japan Immigration Policy Institute. Chapter bibliographies, index.