Catchment Area Characteristics Research Articles

Using Big Data to enhance data envelopment analysis of retail store productivity

PurposeThe concept of productivity is central to performance management and decision-making, although it is complex and multifaceted. This paper aims to describe a methodology based on the use of Big Data in a cluster analysis combined with a data envelopment analysis (DEA) that provides accurate and reliable productivity measures in a large network of retailers.Design/methodology/approachThe methodology is described using a case study of a leading kitchen furniture producer. More specifically, Big Data is used in a two-step analysis prior to the DEA to automatically cluster a large number of retailers into groups that are homogeneous in terms of structural and environmental factors and assess a within-the-group level of productivity of the retailers.FindingsThe proposed methodology helps reduce the heterogeneity among the units analysed, which is a major concern in DEA applications. The data-driven factorial and clustering technique allows for maximum within-group homogeneity and between-group heterogeneity by reducing subjective bias and dimensionality, which is embedded with the use of Big Data.Practical implicationsThe use of Big Data in clustering applied to productivity analysis can provide managers with data-driven information about the structural and socio-economic characteristics of retailers' catchment areas, which is important in establishing potential productivity performance and optimizing resource allocation. The improved productivity indexes enable the setting of targets that are coherent with retailers' potential, which increases motivation and commitment.Originality/valueThis article proposes an innovative technique to enhance the accuracy of productivity measures through the use of Big Data clustering and DEA. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no attempts have been made to benefit from the use of Big Data in the literature on retail store productivity.

How accessibility to schools is not (just) a transport problem: the case of public school choice in the city of Malmö, Sweden

There is currently a lack of studies exploring how transport investments and school admission policies in a city can affect the distribution of accessibility to schools. The aim of this study is to investigate if, for whom, and the ways in which, accessibility to schools can change following (1) a change to the city’s public school admission policy and (2) investments in public transport infrastructure and adjustments to the public transport system. We draw on the case of Malmö, Sweden to examine the potential effects of these changes. This study is focused specifically on those in grades 7–9 (aged approximately 13–15), a group whose independent mobility is starting to take form. A geospatial analysis was carried out in order to compare the change in demographic makeup between school catchment areas (real and hypothetical) before and after the changes were made. The geospatial analysis utilises a cumulative opportunity accessibility model that takes into account typical public transport travel times both before and after these new measures were implemented. Findings indicate that the (hypothetical) school catchment areas have been redistributed to a considerable extent following both interventions, but particularly following the change to the public school admission policy. These redistributions have in turn resulted in changes in the socio-economic characteristics of the hypothetical school catchment areas. While the redistribution of school catchment areas could potentially change the socio-economic composition of schools in Malmö, the effects are not equally distributed throughout the city. While the addition of the new train line was the main focus of this study, it was found that other changes in the public transport system between 2018 and 2019 also played a role in determining which schools students could and could not access. The findings from this study highlight the importance of carefully considering the interaction of different effects when assessing policy alternatives.

Retail rings of influence: Rethinking retail catchment analysis in the light of purchasing power

Catchment areas are vital indicators of purchasing power that significantly influence the retail sales of shopping malls. However, conventional models, typically provided by mall owners, often assume a fixed isochrone, neglecting the sensitivity of the catchment size on mall's positioning strategies and sizes. This study introduces a novel, flexible approach, leveraging the population and household incomes of administrative units as a proxy for purchasing power, thereby enabling a sensitivity analysis on adjustable catchment sizes. We develop a Python programme to geofence these units based on an adjustable isochrone radius. This pioneering research also applies principles from the species-energy relationship and niche specialisation theory to build a theoretical model of catchment areas, empirically testing it using Australian data. Our findings confirm that while purchasing power within varying catchment sizes exerts a positive influence on retail sales, the impact is less pronounced for larger malls due to their more generalised niche in attracting customers far away from the malls. This study sheds new light on the dynamic interplay between catchment area characteristics and mall performance, offering valuable insights for future research and retail strategy planning.

Impact of hydropower reservoirs on floods: evidence from large river basins in Austria

ABSTRACT In this study the impact of hydropower reservoirs on floods is systematically assessed for eight heavily modified river basins in Austria. Since little discharge data from prior to the construction is available, unaffected annual peak discharges downstream of the reservoirs were estimated by transposing the peak runoff of an unaffected catchment, considering the spatial proximity, the catchment area and the temporarily corresponding precipitation conditions. Comparing the observed and estimated discharge, results show significant reductions not only at gauges directly affected by the reservoir but also farther downstream at receiving rivers. The propagation of the flood peak reduction downstream is also related to catchment area and reservoir characteristics. Extreme events with return periods greater than 30 years show a noteworthy flood peak reduction of over 33% on average. These findings show that reservoirs primarily constructed for hydropower generation also contribute significantly to flood control and flood mitigation.

Spatial variations in sediment production and surface transformations in subtropical fluvial basins (Caculuvar River, south‐west Angola): Implications for the composition of sedimentary deposits

AbstractSeveral compositional features of sedimentary deposits can be used to reconstruct environmental conditions of source areas. In this research, bulk X‐ray diffraction mineralogy, heavy and clay mineral assemblages and geochemistry obtained for modern deposits of the Cunene River and its tributaries Caculuvar–Mucope are integrated with geological/geomorphological characteristics of respective catchment areas to evaluate to what extent sediment production is spatially variable and source materials are differently affected by exogenous transformations. Detrital sources can be classified into four main types based on sediment composition: felsic, mafic, recycled and mixed. Source contributions obtained with unmixing models using distinct input data reveal some disagreements, with heavy mineral assemblages pointing to higher mafic contribution and bulk XRD‐mineralogy favouring the recycled sedimentary component. However, the three datasets coincide showing a lower supply from the Kalahari Basin than the large outcropping areas of its sedimentary units would suggest, which is attributed to the relatively low rainfall and relief in this region. Where multiple depositional cycles are involved in sediment production the composition of the river deposits, even their clay fractions, will not reflect coeval weathering transformations and an under‐estimation of the mafic component probably occurs. This research reveals how exogenous processes may deviate the composition of the produced sediment from a simple weighted by outcropping area average of the source units and compromise (palaeo)environmental interpretations based on sediment composition.

Socioeconomic status and public health in Australia: A wastewater-based study.

Analysis of untreated municipal wastewater is recognized as an innovative approach to assess population exposure to or consumption of various substances. Currently, there are no published wastewater-based studies investigating the relationships between catchment social, demographic, and economic characteristics with chemicals using advanced non-targeted techniques. In this study, fifteen wastewater samples covering 27% of the Australian population were collected during a population Census. The samples were analysed with a workflow employing liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry and chemometric tools for non-target analysis. Socioeconomic characteristics of catchment areas were generated using Geospatial Information Systems software. Potential correlations were explored between pseudo-mass loads of the identified compounds and socioeconomic and demographic descriptors of the wastewater catchments derived from Census data. Markers of public health (e.g., cardiac arrhythmia, cardiovascular disease, anxiety disorder and type 2 diabetes) were identified in the wastewater samples by the proposed workflow. They were positively correlated with descriptors of disadvantage in education, occupation, marital status and income, and negatively correlated with descriptors of advantage in education and occupation. In addition, markers of polypropylene glycol (PPG) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) related compounds were positively correlated with housing and occupation disadvantage. High positive correlations were found between separated and divorced people and specific drugs used to treat cardiac arrhythmia, cardiovascular disease, and depression. Our robust non-targeted methodology in combination with Census data can identify relationships between biomarkers of public health, human behaviour and lifestyle and socio-demographics of whole populations. Furthermore, it can identify specific areas and socioeconomic groups that may need more assistance than others for public health issues. This approach complements important public health information and enables large-scale national coverage with a relatively small number of samples.

A direct demand model for bus transit ridership in Bengaluru, India

• A disaggregate direct demand model of bus transit ridership in Bengaluru, India. • Log-sum variable as an empirical strategy to relate spatially aggregated demand data to disaggregate stop-level catchment area characteristics. • Route-level service frequency is endogenous to and has a non-linear impact on stop-level ridership. • Inter-route relationships (competition and complementarity among routes) within the bus network and with the Metro network significantly influence bus ridership. • The proposed framework and empirical strategies are applicable to analyze transit ridership in other cities. This study formulates a disaggregate direct demand model of bus transit ridership while addressing the following substantive and methodological issues: (a) endogeneity and non-linearity of the influence of service frequency on ridership, (b) inter-route relationships such as competition and complementarity among routes within the bus transit network and with other transit networks (such as the metro/rail network), (c) relating spatially aggregated demand to disaggregate, stop-level catchment characteristics – although demand data are available only at an aggregation of stop-clusters, and (d) overlapping of catchment areas among closely spaced stops. The proposed model is applied to analyze bus transit ridership (boardings) during weekdays for morning peak period in Bengaluru, India. This study is among the first to develop a comprehensive direct demand model for forecasting bus transit ridership in an Indian city. Yet, the proposed conceptual and methodological framework and the findings from the study are general enough to be of use for transit planning in other cities of India and other countries. Transit agencies with spatially aggregate, fare-stage cluster-level ridership data can employ the proposed approach to examine the influence of disaggregate stop-level catchment characteristics on ridership. Additionally, transit agencies may utilise the proposed model to quantify bus ridership impacts of service network modifications, route alignments, and network connectivity/accessibility, while considering interactions with other transit networks. The empirical results suggest that while increasing service frequency increases ridership along low-frequency routes, the returns from increasing service frequency diminish as current frequency levels increase. Further, it is shown that route-level passenger kilometres, a variable commonly available with transit agencies, serves effectively as an instrument for addressing endogeneity between route-level service frequency and stop-route-level ridership.

Assessment of the landslide dams in Western Austria, Bavaria and Northern Italy (part of the Eastern Alps): Data inventory development and application of geomorphic indices

Landslide dams pose significant hazards towards their upstream and downstream areas due to damming and flooding. Case studies and the use of geomorphic indices, which are developed based on large datasets, are two common approaches in the stability assessment of landslide dams. To gain an insight into the evolution of landslide dams within a part of the Eastern Alps and to provide a basis for further studies on this topic, a data inventory including 73 landslide dams is presented. The database covers sites in Western Austria, Bavaria and Northern Italy, containing 39 descriptive and quantitative parameters gathered in five categories of location, landslide, dam, lake, and catchment. The methodologies utilized for parameter definition follow a simple and consistent procedure described in detail for one case study, the Wiese landslide in Tyrol (Austria). Statistical assessment of the geometric parameters indicated an acceptable collation between mean values of the developed inventory and dataset of other geographical regions. Moreover, by developing a correlation matrix of the quantitative fields, landslide dam parameters showed a fairly strong correlation with the landslide and backwater lake parameters. However, they appear to be statistically independent of the catchment area characteristics. The applicability of the previously developed geomorphic indices is evaluated by plotting the current data and determining the upper and lower bounds of the stable and unstable domains regarding a 95 % confidence level of the mean value. The best applicability is obtained out of the blockage and dimensionless blockage indices. Further, a set of catchment ruggedness-based indices are developed based on the collected data. The indices act upon the catchment properties as driving forces and three different sets of characteristics of the dam and landslide as resisting forces. The reliability of these indices is confirmed by obtaining the adjusted R2 within 70–85 %, narrowing down the uncertain domain on the graphs in comparison to the reviewed literature, and the applicability of them on the current database. Each catchment ruggedness-based index is suitable to predict the evolution of the dams and backwater lakes at the time of occurrence depending on the available data.

Quantification of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater treatment plants mirrors the pandemic trend in Hong Kong

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) for the SARS-CoV-2 virus in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) has emerged as a cost-effective and unbiased tool for population-level testing in the community. In the present study, we conducted a 6-month wastewater monitoring campaign from three WWTPs of different flow rates and catchment area characteristics, which serve 28 % (2.1 million people) of Hong Kong residents in total. Wastewater samples collected daily or every other day were concentrated using ultracentrifugation and the SARS-CoV-2 virus RNA in the supernatant was detected using the N1 and E primer sets. The results showed significant correlations between the virus concentration and the number of daily new cases in corresponding catchment areas of the three WWTPs when using 7-day moving average values (Kendall's tau-b value: 0.227–0.608, p < 0.001). SARS-CoV-2 virus concentration was normalized to a fecal indicator using PMMoV concentration and daily flow rates, but the normalization did not enhance the correlation. The key factors contributing to the correlation were also evaluated, including the sampling frequency, testing methods, and smoothing days. This study demonstrates the applicability of wastewater surveillance to monitor overall SARS-CoV-2 pandemic dynamics in a densely populated city like Hong Kong, and provides a large-scale longitudinal reference for the establishment of the long-term sentinel surveillance in WWTPs for WBE of pathogens which could be combined into a city-wide public health observatory.

Biogeochemical and mineralogical effects of Fe-P-S dynamics in sediments of continental shelf sea: Impact of salinity, oxygen conditions, and catchment area characteristics

In this study, we investigate how salinity, oxygen concentration and catchment area characteristics impact the dynamics of Fe-P-S cycling in the continental shelf sea sediments. Samples were collected from three sites representing different environmental conditions: Gdańsk Deep (southern Baltic Sea), Gotland Deep (central Baltic Sea) and Bothnian Sea (northern Baltic Sea). Sediments were analysed for their mineral composition and speciation of iron and phosphorus. The main groups of Prokaryota involved in Fe-P-S cycling in sediments were indicated. Concentrations of sulphate, hydrogen sulphide, alkalinity, chloride, calcium, phosphate and iron were measured in pore waters. We demonstrated that in the eutrophicated southern region with moderate salinity and oxygen deficit in bottom water, sediments had high potential for retaining Fe and releasing P as indicated by high concentrations of pyrite and labile forms of phosphorus, respectively. Strong salinity stratification and intermittent pelagic redoxcline in the central Baltic Sea resulted in a clearly higher rate of pyrite deposition. Sediment was enriched with Mn due to the formation of Ca-Mn carbonates driven by intensive Mn redox cycling and sulphate reduction. Because of high availability of Mn oxides connected with episodic inflows of oxic seawater from the North Sea, sulphate was present in the entire profile of the studied sediments in the Gotland Deep. Sediments in the well-oxygenated, virtually fresh and rich in land-derived iron northern Baltic Sea retained significant amounts of P in authigenic minerals. Organic matter mineralisation in the surface sediment of this area was dominated by iron reduction. The variability of environmental conditions and consequent availability of electron acceptors were the cause of regional differences in the composition of Prokaryota communities – the number of sulphate reducers in the Gdańsk and Gotland Deeps was greater than in the Bothnian Sea, where there were more Fe reducers and bacteria that oxidise Fe and S.

Solute transport and solutional denu-dation rate of carbonate karst in the semi-arid Zagros region (southwes-tern Iran)

We conducted a one-year-long study of solute load measured three times per month in three neighboring subwatersheds (Alashtar, Khorram Abad, and Biranshahr) located in the Karkheh River basin in the Zagros region of southwestern Iran. Research was focused on the chemical composition of water (solute load), karst denudation rate, spatial and temporal variability, as well as comparison of solute load with suspended load. Results show that Ca-Mg-HCO3 is the dominant water type that reflects the lithological characteristics of the catchment areas. Lack of seasonal fluctuation of solute load and absence of dilution during high water levels but evident seasonal course of discharge defines the highest solute flux during the annual maximum of discharge in spring months. The highest solute flux is related to flood events. High annual variation of Na1 concentration compared to conservative Cl2 as well as Chloro-Alkali indexes (CAI and CAI2) suggests that Na1 adsorption and desorption during ion-exchange reactions occur in the regolith. This Na+ variability, to some extent, explains weak Ca21 and Mg21 dilution effect during high water levels. During the measurement period (2014-2015), solute flux calculated per catchment area amounted to 49-69 t km-2 a-1 (tons per km per year). The chemical composition of water and discharge shows by far the highest chemical denudation of limestones and dolomites (87−89 %), while dissolution of gypsum is of minor importance (11−13 %). As a result, the carbonate karst solutional denudation rate is between 0.010 and 0.040 mm a21 , where the higher values are more probable for longer periods due to the relatively low discharge during the spring of 2015. Comparison of dissolved and suspended loads indicates that the transport of suspended load is an order of magnitude less than transport of the dissolved load; the only exception is one flash flood event when suspended load exceeded the dissolved load. Besides a small decrease in solute flux as well as carbonate karst dissolution rates from NW to SE, no large hydrochemical differences between the three subwatersheds were detected.

Understanding Town Centre Performance in Wales: Using GIS to Develop a Tool for Benchmarking

Welsh Government policy establishes town centres as central places of community activity and local prosperity, recognising the positive impact towns have on the local economy and the well-being and cohesion felt amongst local communities. In light of this, recent declines in the usage of town centres are a major cause for concern. These have not been experienced uniformly across all towns, with some towns out-performing others. This paper applies principles outlined in Welsh Government’s Planning Policy Wales to develop a tool which classifies a sample of 71 towns and cities in Wales based on their centre and catchment characteristics. Catchment areas have been delineated using a Spatial Interaction Model to account for complex consumer behaviours and competition between centres. The tool identifies six distinct types of towns alongside key socio-economic catchment area characteristics. Once developed, we demonstrate our tool’s application by exploring variations in town centre performance between and within each town type. Case study examples exemplify how policymakers may use this tool to benchmark between towns, evaluating the suitability of a town’s retail offering based on its performance relative to the benchmark, guiding decisions relating to the types of businesses and uses a town should pursue to improve its appeal to its catchment community. In conclusion, several recommendations to policymakers are suggested.

Do charophytes influence biomass and species composition of phytoflagellates?

Four Chara lakes, differing in their morphological features, physico-chemical water properties, catchment area characteristics and human pressure, were studied in order to recognize the influence of the charophyte PVI, proportion in the phytolittoral zone and species composition on phytoflagellate community. In one lake, the proportion of vegetation was lower than 50 % of the lake’s area while in the other lakes it was higher, in one of them reaching almost 70 %. Phytoflagellate diversity, biomass and relative biomass (proportion in total phytoplankton biomass) were studied monthly during the growing season. Both small and shallow as well as large and deep Chara lakes supported high proportion of phytoflagellates exceeding even 90 % of the total phytoplankton biomass, but our results suggest lake-specificity in the composition of phytoflagellates. Phytoflagellate species appeared among the phytoplankton dominants in each month and in each lake. Out of four phytoflagellate groups examined, the biomass of cryptophytes and relative biomass of haptophytes differed significantly in the Chara lakes studied. Cryptophytes were related to the human pressure on one hand and to the cover of charophyte vegetation on the other hand. The use and type of catchment area seem to be the main factors influencing the biomass and the structure of phytoflagellate assemblage.

A GIS-Based Method for Analysing the Association Between School-Built Environment and Home-School Route Measures with Active Commuting to School in Urban Children and Adolescents.

In the current call for a greater human health and well-being as a sustainable development goal, to encourage active commuting to and from school (ACS) seems to be a key factor. Research focusing on the analysis of the association between environmental factors and ACS in children and adolescents has reported limited and inconclusive evidence, so more knowledge is needed about it. The main aim of this study is to examine the association between different built environmental factors of both school neighbourhood and home-school route with ACS of children and adolescents belonging to urban areas. The ACS level was evaluated using a self-reported questionnaire. Built environment variables (i.e., density of residents, street connectivity and mixed land use) within a school catchment area and home-school route characteristics (i.e., distance and pedestrian route directness—PRD) were measured using a geographic information system (GIS) and examined together with ACS levels. Subsequently, the association between environmental factors and ACS was analysed by binary logistic regression. Several cut-off points of the route measures were explored using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. In addition, the PRD was further studied regarding different thresholds. The results showed that 70.5% of the participants were active and there were significant associations between most environmental factors and ACS. Most participants walked to school when routes were short (distance variable in children: OR = 0.980; p = 0.038; and adolescents: OR = 0.866; p < 0.001) and partially direct (PRD variable in children: OR = 11.334; p < 0.001; and adolescents: OR = 3.513; p < 0.001), the latter specially for children. Mixed land uses (OR = 2.037; p < 0.001) and a high density of street intersections (OR = 1.640; p < 0.001) clearly encouraged adolescents walking and slightly discouraged children walking (OR = 0.657, p = 0.010; and OR = 0.692, p = 0.025, respectively). The assessment of ACS together with the environmental factors using GIS separately for children and adolescents can inform future friendly and sustainable communities.

Multilevel social factors and NICU quality of care in California

ObjectiveOur objective was to incorporate social and built environment factors into a compendium of multilevel factors among a cohort of very low birth weight infants to understand their contributions to inequities in NICU quality of care and support providers and NICUs in addressing these inequities via development of a health equity dashboard.Study designWe examined bivariate associations between NICU patient pool and NICU catchment area characteristics and NICU quality of care with data from a cohort of 15,901 infants from 119 NICUs in California, born 2008–2011.ResultNICUs with higher proportion of minority racial/ethnic patients and lower SES patients had lower quality scores. NICUs with catchment areas of lower SES, higher composition of minority residents, and more household crowding had lower quality scores.ConclusionMultilevel social factors impact quality of care in the NICU. Their incorporation into a health equity dashboard can inform providers of their patients’ potential resource needs.

Physicochemical parameters and phytoplankton as indicators of the aquatic environment in karstic springs of South China

As the concentrated discharge outlet of an aquifer or groundwater system, a karst spring is partly independent from the aquifer, due to its formation of a pool or lake after outcropping onto the surface. Understanding how to evaluate the unique and sensitive environment of the karst spring is essential for water resource protection. Five karst springs in South China were investigated by analyzing their hydrodynamic conditions, variations in physicochemical parameters, and phytoplankton community structures. Dominated by regional or local groundwater flow, these springs had different catchment area characteristics and hydrogeological conditions. The results showed that, although they had similar water quality, their physicochemical parameters needed to be distinguished and evaluated in different ways in order to determine the cause of the observed degradation in spring water quality. Ca2+, HCO3−, and specific electrical conductivity were the major parameters reflecting the impact of regional flow from the aquifer; pH, dissolved oxygen, and water temperature indicated the local environment in and around the springs; while nitrogen and CODMn both related to the aquifer and local environment, depending on seasonal variation and human activities. The comparison of long-term nitrate data revealed that environmental pressure has increased over time. Water deterioration of Lingshui Spring was attributed to the strong interaction of surface water and groundwater. High nutrient concentrations did not correspond with the highest phytoplankton abundance or the most species. The phytoplankton community structures in the karst springs varied from place to place, depending on the hydrogeological conditions and the surrounding environment. The water environment status, as reflected by the combination of water quality indices and biological indicators, could more comprehensively represent overall water health.

Accumulation and characteristics of plastic debris along five beaches in Cape Town

Beach accumulation surveys can be used as a proxy to estimate litter flows into the marine environment. However, litter loads can be influenced by various factors including catchment area characteristics, weather conditions and ocean water movements. This complexity is evidenced by the results of five beach surveys conducted in Cape Town in 2017. Observed average litter accumulation rates across the beaches ranged from 36 to 2961 items·day−1·100 m−1. Item mass ranged from 0.01–367 g, with items weighing <1 g contributing 61–85% of count. Plastic items accounted for 94.5–98.9% of total count and this prevalence appears to have increased relative to older data (1989–1994). The top ten identifiable items accounted for 40–57% of plastic debris. Nine of these were associated with foods commonly consumed on-the-go, including polystyrene packaging, snack packets and straws. A mitigation approach focused on these items may address one third to one half of marine litter sources in Cape Town.

Correlation between Transit-Oriented Development (TOD), Land Use Catchment Areas, and Local Environmental Transformation

Transit-oriented development (TOD) has been recognised as a sustainable planning approach and that is typically designed for a whole city. Individual land use characteristics and the causations have often been ignored. Therefore, the primary objective of this study was to explore the factors that influence the land use catchment area (LCA) characteristics at a station neighborhood level. First, it contributes a methodology to measure the LCA by introducing a new concept. The density gradient was introduced to generate the scale and compactness degree of each station. Second, it provides a theoretical framework for understanding the causes of different LCAs. The partial least squares (PLS) regression model was employed to explore the accessibility effects. By analysing density gradient curves, it reveals that stations grew to fit the negative exponential function. Regarding the scale and form degree of LCAs, the impact of accessibility before and after a station construction have been corroborated. Moreover, the effects of facilities function before construction, distance from main roads, and elevated stations have been emphasized. The results provide support for a more sophisticated concept of catchment area relating to land use at the level of an individual TOD station, while shedding light on the benefits of those engaged in the future design of TOD with due consideration of the local physical environments.

88EMF Freestanding Versus Hospital-Based Emergency Departments: Comparing Geographic Catchment Areas and Visit Characteristics

We compared the geographic catchment areas and patient visit characteristics at hospital-affiliated freestanding emergency departments (FREDs) versus hospital-based emergency departments (HEDs). We performed a retrospective observational analysis of adult patient visits to 19 hospital-affiliated FREDs and 5 HEDs in Colorado over a 1-year period. Catchment areas were defined using a straight marginal approach as Colorado zip codes that served as the zip code of residence for at least 0.5% of an emergency department’s (ED's) annual census. Catchment area characteristics were obtained from the 2016 American Community Survey, and median demographics were compared using the 2-sample Wilcoxon rank-sum test. Patient visit characteristics were abstracted from 2016-17 electronic medical record data, and Chi-squared test was used to compare visit characteristics between FREDs and HEDs. The FRED catchment area included 150 zip codes and the HED catchment area included 82 zip codes, with 70 zip codes overlapping. The catchment areas were similar in median zip code population, percent Hispanic residents, percent of residents with health insurance, educational attainment, and percent non-English speakers. Compared to HED catchment areas, FRED catchment areas had a lower proportion of non-White residents (12.4% versus 17.3%, p=0.005), higher median household incomes ($70,356 versus 58,762, p=0.008), a lower proportion of residents with public health insurance (26.1% versus 30.6%, p=0.033), and a lower proportion of residents below the federal poverty level (8.1% versus 10.8%, p=0.013). On analysis of patient visit characteristics, FREDs had a larger proportion of visits from patients between the ages of 18 and 44 (63% versus 54%, p< 0.001) and fewer visits from patients 80 years and older (3% versus 6%, p<0.001). Similar to catchment area patterns, FREDs had significantly lower proportions of non-White patient visits (24% versus 34%, p<0.001) and patient visits with public insurance (29% versus 39% Medicaid and 14% versus 23% Medicare, p<0.001). FREDs did have a larger proportion of uninsured patient visits than HEDs (12% versus 10%, p<0.001). FREDs had more visits from infrequent ED utilizers, with fewer than 4 visits to any study ED over the year (84% versus 72%, p<0.001), and they had fewer visits from super-utilizers, with 10 or more ED visits (3% versus 7%). Hospital-affiliated FREDs tend to serve communities with higher incomes, fewer minorities, and higher rates of private insurance than do HEDs. These patterns are largely reflected in patient visit characteristics as well.

Structural features and regional characteristics of psychiatric hospitals in Germany

The German Law for the Development of Care and Funding for Psychiatric and Psychosomatic Services (PsychVVG) has established anew regulation for the mental healthcare system. In the future, characteristics of hospitals and catchment areas will be an elementary part of negotiations on remuneration. The aim of this study was to identify structural and regional characteristics of psychiatric hospitals in Germany that contribute to increased average costs according to the views of clinical managers and directors. In this study 37guided expert interviews were conducted with business managers, financial controllers, leading medical and nursing personnel from psychiatric hospitals and the characteristics relevant for the budget and increased average costs were collated. Important factors with top priority were hospital infrastructure, characteristics of the catchment area and specialties of inpatient services provided. Obligatory service for adefined catchment area, increased documentation requirements and infrastructure of buildings and grounds were estimated as being associated with the highest additional financial expenditure. It is achallenge for clinics to prove increased average costs due to the respective hospital structural and regional characteristics. This study shows which characteristics should be considered as most cost-relevant from the perspective of hospital management.