Cashew Shell Research Articles

Mathematical Model of Gasification of Solid Fuel

This paper presents an innovative mathematical model of solid fuel gasification, which is not described in the available literature. The calculation of the components of the heterogeneous phase (including both solid and gaseous phases) as well as the calculation of the homogeneous phase (only gaseous components) is based on the balance of the total amounts of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen entering the reactor space. Additionally, this paper introduces a new method for calculating the composition of the gaseous phase, based on reducing the heterogeneous mixture (composed of solid and gaseous phases) to a homogeneous gaseous phase. This approach to calculating the gaseous phase composition in the solid fuel gasification process has not been found by the authors in the cited literature. This paper also presents a model for calculating the heterogeneous and gaseous phases using the number of moles that participate in the assumed chemical reactions of the solid fuel gasification process. This approach to calculating the composition of the heterogeneous and gaseous phases of the solid fuel gasification process is also not represented in the cited literature. For comparison with the literature data, municipal solid waste (MSW) and cashew nut shell (Cashew Shell Char (CNSC)) were used as fuels in the calculation of gasification composition. The results of the calculation of the gaseous phase composition using the model presented in the paper show good agreement with the data from the literature. The calculation of the composition of the heterogeneous mixture during the steam gasification of MSW (α = 0.4) shows the presence of a solid phase (carbon) up to approximately 735 °C. At that temperature, the synthetic gas contains only gaseous components: CO = 33.10%, H2 = 52.70%, CH4 = 2.54%, CO2 = 4.97, H2O = 5.93% and N2 = 0.76%. Increasing the temperature above 735 °C eliminates the solid phase from the equilibrium mixture. The literature data on solid fuel gasification generally do not consider the proportion of the solid phase (carbon) in the equilibrium mixture. To satisfy the material balance at the input and output of the gasification reactor, it is necessary to determine the proportion of the solid phase (carbon) in the equilibrium mixture. Since the proportion of the solid phase (carbon) in the heterogeneous equilibrium mixture can only be determined through measurement, the development and application of a mathematical model in engineering practice is of great importance, so this developed model can be considered a useful tool for simulating the influence of process parameters on gas characteristics.

Evaluation of mechanical, thermal, and flammability properties in biochar-infused polymer composites from bael fruit and cashew shells: a comparative study

Evaluation of mechanical, thermal, and flammability properties in biochar-infused polymer composites from bael fruit and cashew shells: a comparative study

Production, thermal recycling, and application of cardanol-based polyurethane foam with phenol-carbamate bonds

The economic processing, sustainable recycling, and environmentally friendly application of polyurethane (PU) foams are important issues that need to be addressed urgently. In this study, we propose a strategy for the comprehensive utilization of cardanol and cashew shells to design cardanol-based PU (CPU) foams and wood-plastic films that can be recycled and reused. Firstly, cardanol-based polyphenols (CBPs) with a phenolic hydroxyl content of 3.29 mmol/g were prepared by Friedel-Crafts alkylation reaction using cardanol and guaiacol as raw materials. Subsequently, CPU foams were prepared by reacting CBPs with isocyanate, and the vertical and parallel compressive strengths could reach up to 0.27 MPa and 0.32 MPa, respectively, when the addition of CBPs was 80 %. These CPU foams, containing dynamic phenol-carbamate bonds, could be hot-pressed into transparent and smooth CPU films with tensile strengths of up to 30.5 MPa and could be re-formed at least three times. Finally, CPU foam and cashew shell waste were mixed and hot-pressed to produce a green wood-plastic composite with a tensile strength of up to 38.8 MPa. The resulting CPU-Wood films could be repaired or reshaped at least five times (38.0 MPa and 38.1 MPa) and could be formed into various shapes. This research paves the way for large-scale industrial production of recyclable and regenerative bio-based foams, making effective use of waste materials to achieve environmentally friendly production processes.

Sustainable, transparent, strong toughness, UV resistance, and anti-corrosion properties of cashew shell oil-based waterborne polyurethane network derived from phloretin and sorbitan monooleate-based siloxane

The increasingly severe energy shortage and growing environmental problems have accelerated the rapid development of sustainable polymer materials. Hereon, a novel method was proposed for the synthesis of cashew nut shell oil-based waterborne polyurethane (WPUs), which exhibited excellent toughness, transparency, water resistance, UV resistance and corrosion resistance. Specifically, the sorbitan monooleate-based siloxane (MSP) was prepared via a thiol-ene click chemistry reaction. Subsequently, the plant-based phloretin (PRT) and MSP were introduced as polyols into the skeleton of WPUs through the molecular structure design strategy. Series of high bio-based content (91 %) WPUs networks were obtained via pre-polymerization and self-emulsification methods. The properties of their dispersions and films were thoroughly investigated, and it was found that the addition of MSP and PRT enhanced the overall performance of WPUs film. For instance, there was a significant increase in Tg. Additionally, they exhibited a maximum tensile strength of 31.5 MPa and a maximum toughness of 53 MJ/m3, which were the most outstanding among all reported plant oil-based WPU systems so far, indicating excellent tear resistance. Interestingly, the water absorption rate of PSWPU-40 was reduced to 7.1 %, suggesting good water resistance, which resolved the contradiction between the mechanical properties and water resistance of the current plant oil-based WPU systems. The PSPWU films exhibited promising application prospects, exemplified by its ability to effectively shield the entire UV range. Furthermore, its coating demonstrated outstanding anti-corrosion properties with a maximum anticorrosion efficiency of 97.1 %. It could be attributed to the synergistic effect of a self-crosslinking structure, higher crosslinking density, a tighter network structure, and stronger intermolecular forces (H-bond). This work provided a meaningful guide for the application and development of high-performance bio-based WPU functional coatings.

Techno-economic analysis case study of energy production utilizing cashew shell agro-waste in Vietnam

In this paper, a system for energy production from biomass combustion to provide electricity to the national grid of Vietnam was evaluated based on different thermodynamics systems and the cultivation capacity of the local area. A 20:80 mixture of cashew shell and cashew wood chip is considered as fuel source to be combusted utilizing a fixed bed technology with high energy efficiency. Considering a 10 MW production capacity to the national grid, a 20-year Net Present Value analysis and payback time evaluation was considered based on the economic factors in Vietnam. The study demonstrates how the current feed-in tariff in Vietnam is too low to encourage investment in biomass power plant. Following a suggested electricity selling price that is close to the household electric cost, the power plant shows high potential with a short payback period of 9.22 years and a levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of only 6.4 cents/kWh. Sensitivity analyses were performed for different scenarios of material cost, electricity selling price and initial investment to show that within a 10 % variation in process factors, such project would still be able to reach payback within 20 years, with an overall LCOE of around 5–7 cents/kWh, proving the high potential of biomass-based energy production projects.

Converting coconut meal into biothermoplastics for industrial applications

AbstractWe present a simple approach to convert coconut (copra) oil cake into biothermoplastics with properties that are suitable for replacing synthetic polymer‐based plastics in current use. About 1.9 million tons of copra meal are generated ever year as coproducts and are available at $0.50–$0.60 per kilogram, making it a renewable, sustainable and low‐cost raw material. Despite containing proteins, carbohydrates and oil, there are limited non‐food applications of oil meals since most oil meals are typically non‐thermoplastic and hence difficult to be processed into bioproducts. In this study, we report the processing of copra meal into biothermoplastics in the presence of various plasticizers, heat and pressure. Compression molded films and bioproducts were developed from copra meal by heating at 130°C in the presence of glycerol, coconut oil or cashew shell oil as plasticizer. The films obtained had tensile strength of up to 4.4 MPa and were inherently stable in water. A one‐step crosslinking with citric acid was done to further improve the strength and stability of the films. With large availability at low cost, copra meal provides an opportunity to develop low‐cost, biodegradable, edible and innovative bioproducts that have the potential to replace the synthetic polymer‐based plastics in current use, particularly single‐use plastics.

Optimal evaluation of crop residues for gasification in Ghana using integrated multi-criterial decision making techniques

Lack of sustainable feedstock quantity and quality has been reported to be one of the major challenges confronting operations of gasifier plants in Ghana. In this paper, TOPSIS (Technique for order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution) COPRAS (Complex Proportional Assessment) and VIKOR (Multi-criteria Optimisation and Compromise Solution) were used to select optimal crop residues for sustainable gasification in Ghana among thirteen residue types. The Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) was used as weighting criteria for the three Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) techniques. Thirteen criteria based on particle size, proximate, ultimate analysis, calorific values, and quantity of residues were used. Five scenarios were considered; ranking of individual feedstock, consideration of the combination of the feedstock grouped under four categories. The ultimate and proximate analysis of the various crop residues as determined were generally within recommended levels as reported in the literature. Cashew shells and cassava peels have the highest heating value and annual technical residue potential of 23.4 MJ/kg and 880,750 tonnes respectively. Ranking of the individual crop residues confirmed cassava peels as the best alternatives of all the three MCDM techniques. The average rankings of the alternatives from the three MCDM in the order of best to worst are cassava peels, maize stalk, cocoa pod husk, maize cobs, rice straw, shea nut husk, groundnut husk, Palm kernel shells, EFB, rice husk, coconut husk/shells, cashew shells, and shea nut cake. Rankings of the alternatives under the four categories considered showed that feedstock blends containing four residues or more offer better opportunities for sustainable gasification than individual feedstock. Statistical analysis shows that there is a very strong, positive correlation between VIKOR, COPRAS, and TOPSIS. The strongest correlation is between VIKOR and TOPSIS with spearman's rank correlation index of 0.98. The analysis was sensitive to the weight of the strategy of group utility, recoverability ratio, residue-to-product ratio and annual crop production figures. It is recommended that optimal gasifier design and operational conditions taken into consideration the various feedstocks and their combination as determined from this study must be studied.

Exploring the synergetic effects of rice husk, cashew shell, and cashew husk biomass blends on fluidized bed gasification for enhanced hydrogen production

The present study, explored the gasification performance of commonly available biomass like rice husk, cashew shell, and cashew husk and their blend for better gasification performance using a 3 kW fluidized bed gasifier in the ER ranging from 0.2 to 0.35 and temperature of 750 °C. The catalytic effect of biomass blends are identified by using FTIR, XRF, proximate and ultimate analysis. The performance of a fluidized bed gasifier is assessed in terms of its producer gas composition, LHV, CCE, CGE and gas yield. The blending of biomass resulted in the enhancement of producer gas quality due to the synergetic effect. At ER of 0.2, maximum hydrogen of 8.1% and LHV of 4.3 MJ/m3 is obtained, and at ER of 0.35, maximum CGE and CCE of 54.9 and 91% respectively are obtained for RH + CS blend. XRF analysis shows that mineral oxide improves the composition of producer gas, and FTIR analysis indicates a decrease in functional groups in the ash of blended biomass compared to individual biomass.

Synergic interactions, kinetic and thermodynamic analyses of date palm seeds and cashew shell waste co-pyrolysis using Coats–Redfern method

Date palm and cashew shell wastes are abundant byproducts of the agriculture industry in the UAE, but they are often underutilized and not adequately managed, resulting in environmental problems. For the first time, co-pyrolysis of these wastes was studied to investigate their physicochemical properties, synergistic interaction, thermal degradation behavior, and estimate kinetic and thermodynamic parameters using thermogravimetric analysis with non-isothermal heating rates from 20 to 800 °C and a heating rate of 10 °C/min. The Coats and Redfern method, utilizing twenty-one solid-state reaction mechanisms, was used to perform analyses. The three diffusion models showed the best linear regression with the experimental thermogravimetric data. Co-pyrolysis of cashew shells with date seeds significantly lowered the activation energy (Ea) and produced stable biochar, providing an opportunity to obtain pyrolysis products at better energy efficiency. The estimated Ea for 100% date seeds, 100% cashew shells, and their blend (50:50) were 109, 124, and 113 kJ/mol, respectively. The thermodynamic parameters (ΔH, ΔG, and ΔS) indicated that the pyrolysis process was endothermic but not spontaneous. The novelty of this work lies in investigating the potential of utilizing two underutilized wastes together to produce pyrolysis products. This study is essential for advancing co-pyrolysis of date seeds and cashew shell wastes, optimizing product yields, and understanding their pyrolysis behavior towards experimental pyrolysis.

Influence of techniques on synthesizing cashew nut shell oil as a prospective biolubricant on its physicochemical, tribological, and thermal behaviors

Rising demand for lubricants and temperamental government policies hastened the need for a renewable base stock for petroleum-based lubricants. The environment-friendly alternative for conventional lubricants can be developed from non-edible vegetable oils due to its abundance all over the world and biodegradability. The present study focuses on the feasibility study of utilizing Cashew nut shell oil (CNSO) as a lubricant base stock, which is one of the cheap and abundant non-edible oil. Two different types of CNSO are being synthesized-mechanically expelled oil from the boiled cashew shell (MEO) and the oil extracted from raw cut shells (SEO). Lubricating properties such as physicochemical, tribological, thermal, corrosive, and oxidative properties are being evaluated for MEO and SEO samples. It was observed that MEO being more abundant compared with SEO, possesses a low wear scar diameter of 714 μm, better thermal properties, viscosity index, and oxidative stability. Hence MEO is a better option to be considered as a lubricant comparing SEO.

Characterization of slow pyrolysis products from three different cashew wastes

A huge amount of waste is generated by the cashew processing industries. This study aims to valorise these cashew wastes generated at different levels while processing cashew nuts in factories. The feedstocks include cashew skin, cashew shell and cashew shell de-oiled cake. Slow pyrolysis of these three different cashew wastes was performed at varying temperatures (300-500℃) at a heating rate of 10℃/min in a lab scale glass-tubular reactor under inert atmosphere of nitrogen with flow rate of 50 ml/min. The total bio-oil yield for cashew skin and the de-oiled shell cake was 37.1 and 48.6 wt% at 400℃ and 450℃, respectively. However, the maximum bio-oil yield obtained for cashew shell waste was 54.9 wt% at 500℃. The bio-oil was analysed using GC-MS, FTIR, and NMR. Along with the various functionalities observed in bio-oil through GC-MS, phenolics were observed to have maximum area% for all the feedstocks at all temperatures. At all the slow pyrolysis temperatures, cashew skin led to more biochar yield (40 wt%) as compared to cashew de-oiled cake (26 wt%) and cashew shell waste (22 wt%). Biochar was characterized by various analytical tools such as XRD, FTIR, Proximate analyser, CHNS, Py-GC/MS and SEM. Characterization of biochar revealed its carbonaceous and amorphous nature along with porosity.

Lacquer Techniques in the Late Joseon Dynasty

This study conducted scientific analyses on eight objects of wooden lacquerware to understand the manufacturing techniques of wooden lacquerware in the late Joseon Dynasty. The results of lacquer layer analysis with a microscope and scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry revealed that most samples were composed of 1–3 lacquer layers. Moreover, a red-colored layer was found to be red ocher and cinnabar, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy analysis was carried out to determine the components of the lacquer layer. The detected components were mostly lacquer and partially cashew shell nut liquid.

Analysis of a Cashew Shell and Fly Ash Rich Brake Liner Composite Material

Hybrid materials collected from organic and inorganic sources, which are traditionally used as brake lining materials, generally include fly ash, cashew shell powder, phenolic resins, aluminium wool, barites, lime powder, carbon powder and copper powder. The present research focuses on the specific effects produced by fly ash and aims to provide useful indications for the replacement of asbestos due to the health hazards caused by the related fibers. Furthermore, the financial implications related to the use of large-volume use of fly ash, lime stone and cashew shell powder, readily available in most countries in the world, are also discussed. It is shown that many manufacturing and automotive industries, which are currently experiencing difficulties in meeting the increasing demand for brake lining material, may take advantage from the proposed solution.

Experimental analysis of Briquetted cashew shell and tamarind seed as source of bio energy generation

Sustainable development implies development brought to the present society without giving up on the scope of needs that future generation requires. For achieving sustainable development various goals were been fixed and indicators are been used to measure up the progress. Energy utilization is one of the important aspects for development of a country, technology etc. The energy utilized has mostly been fossil based such as coal, oil etc. These sources have been used in electric generation in most countries and crude oil refined petrol and diesel have been used for transporting purpose. The usage of the fossil-based fuels which has more carbon content in them possess the threat of polluting the environment by causing emission into the atmosphere, Moreover the availability of reserves of these sources are also become thin as these are non-renewable source of energy. For overcoming these obstacles, the developed countries are being focussing on renewable sources of energy for managing the energy demand and to have eco-friendly environment. The advancements in the field of bioenergy have contributed energy generation from different sources through various techniques. One of the important aspects about the bioenergy generation is utilizing the waste, end products of the biomass to energy. Various wastages from agro to food industries are not managed as it degrades on its own. However, these organic wastages can be viewed as a source for energy generation. The objective the experiment is analyse tamarind seed, cashew seeds and blend of both in powder form and briquetted for energy generation. The experimental result indicates that the briquetted form of is more suitable in terms of properties with higher fixed carbon contents.

Microwave-Assisted Rapid and Green Synthesis of Schiff Bases Using Cashew Shell Extract as a Natural Acid Catalyst.

The Schiff bases were prepared with aromatic aldehyde and aromatic amine using cashew shell extract as a catalyst under microwave irradiation. This reaction is rapid, efficient, and solvent-free and involves the one-pot synthesis of Schiff bases under microwave irradiation. The synthesized Schiff bases were characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, 13C NMR spectroscopy, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The advantages of the preparation of Schiff bases under microwave irradiation are high yield, shorter reaction time, easy, elimination of side products, and quick product isolation. The synthesized Schiff base derivatives are well known for their biological activity like antibacterial and antifungal activity.

PENDAMPINGAN DAN KAJI TERAP BIOBRIKET KULIT BIJI JAMBU METE DI DUSUN NGAGLIK DESA NGEPOSARI, KECAMATAN SEMANU KABUPATEN GUNUNGKIDUL

One of the ways to reduce oil consumption and land use is to use cashew nut processing waste to produce biocharcoal briquettes, which are made from cashew nut shells. The business potential of cashew nuts (Anacardium occidentale) in Ngaglik Hamlet, Ngeposari Village, Semanu District has prospects as a cashew nut producing area in Gunung Kidul Regency. Cashew nut shells contain fuel with high calorific value and long burning time and are safe for health. However, cashew shell waste has not been managed optimally. The purpose of this service program is to manage cashew nut shell waste as an alternative solid fuel product that can be used by the community as renewable energy. Lecture and discussion methods as well as question and answer are used for training. The contribution of this activity to society through technology transfer produces biobriquettes as a renewable and environmentally friendly energy. The application of science and technology biobriquettes from cashew nut shells has been adopted by cooperator farmers. This is shown by the results of the evaluation that 100% of the farmers made biobriquettes using the tools available in farmer groups for their own needs or for sale. The success of the application of science and technology was due to the transfer of technology from universities and the participation of cooperative and non-cooperative farmers from Ngaglik Hamlet, Ngeposari Village, Semanu District, Gunungkidul Regency, which went well.

Capacitance Value Analysis of Composites of Activated Cashew Shells Charcoal and Iron Sand

<p class="AbstractText"><span lang="EN-AU">This study aims to determine the use of iron sand extract and cashew nut shell activated charcoal in the capacitor manufacturing process and determine the effect of grain size on the capacitor capacitance with electrodes from a composite of iron sand extraction and activated charcoal from cashew nutshells. The sample preparation of cashew nutshell activated charcoal was carried out by carbonation and activation methods at a temperature of 700 <sup>0</sup>C and continued by extracting iron sand. The results of the iron sand extract were then crushed using a mortar, followed by varying the mass fraction of iron sand starting at 40%, 60%, and 80% for each particle size (60 mesh, 100 mesh, and 200 mesh). Then composite the iron sand extract and activated charcoal mixed for 4 hours, and added 0.7 mL of LiNO<sub>3</sub> 1M solution. The analysis showed that the highest specific capacitance was found in the 200 mesh grain size, namely 0.0695 F/g.</span></p>

Analisis Karakteristik Biomassa Cangkang Kelapa Dan Kulit Mete Melalui Proses Torefaksi

In the face of the depletion of fossil fuels, alternative fuels such as biomass are needed. However, biomass has a fairly low calorific value and several other disadvantages compared to petroleum. Therefore, a new breakthrough is needed to correct these weaknesses, one of which is the Torrefaction process. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of torrefaction of coconut shell and cashew shell biomass on the physical and chemical properties of the material. This research was conducted using coconut shells and cashew shells. The results of this study indicate that the calorific value of coconut shells and cashew shells after torrefaction is 5115,297-5147,021 cal/gr. The water content in coconut shells is 2.718% and the value of water content in cashew shells is 2.397%, the ash content of coconut shells is 6.853% and the value of cashew shell ash content is 6.600%, the value of volatile levels of coconut shells is 14.885% and the value of volatile levels of cashew shells of 14.557% and the value of fixed carbon content of coconut shell is 75.574% and the value of fixed carbon content of cashew shell is 76.447%. Keywords : Biomass, coconut shell, cashewnut shell, torrefaction

Role of cashew shell biochar on EMI shielding behaviour of carbon fibre–epoxy nanocomposites in E, F, I and J band–microwave frequencies

Role of cashew shell biochar on EMI shielding behaviour of carbon fibre–epoxy nanocomposites in E, F, I and J band–microwave frequencies

“Production of sustainable biomass briquettes from de-oiled cashewnut Shell”

Turning the biomass waste into briquettes as a fuel source is one of the best alternative in management of waste. The major area of concern all over the world is agro waste management. In many developing countries biomass were produced in large quantities. But it was used inefficiently or disposed in a manner that threatens the environment. The management of agro waste was achieved by densification process. Briquetting is the process that can improve the storage properties by densification process. The main objective of this research is to explore the production of biomass briquettes from de-oiled cashew-nut shell and compare the result with coal, charcoal and briquette from areca plate waste that could meet the energy requirement of our society. De-oiled cashew nuts shell has more calorific value as 4804 kcal/kg. The main ingredients of biomass were agricultural wastes and sawdust that mainly act as binding agent. As briquettes are cheaper, they are used instead of coal and charcoal. Briquetting technology is a type of unpolluted coal technology. The main aim of briquetting is to prevent global warming and conserve forest. The properties of produced de-oiled cashew shell briquette indicate that this briquette can be used in industrial and domestical applications.