Cashew Shell Research Articles

Dominant thermogravimetric signatures of lignin in cashew shell as compared to cashew shell cake

Dominant thermogravimetric signatures related to lignin were observed in cashew shell as compared to these signatures in cashew shell cake. The phenomenon of weakening of lignin from cashew shell to cashew shell cake was explained on the basis of changes in the activation energies. The pertinent temperature regimes responsible for the release of different constituents of both the bio-materials were identified and compared. The activation energies of cashew shell and cashew shell cake were compared using Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose method. Thermogravimetric profiling of cashew shell and cashew shell cake indicated that these were different kinds of bio-materials.

Food waste as a valuable resource for the production of chemicals, materials and fuels. Current situation and global perspective

Increasing demand for fuels and chemicals, driven by factors including over-population, the threat of global warming and the scarcity of fossil resources, strains our resource system and necessitates the development of sustainable and innovative strategies for the chemical industry. Our society is currently experiencing constraints imposed by our resource system, which drives industry to increase its overall efficiency by improving existing processes or finding new uses for waste. Food supply chain waste emerged as a resource with a significant potential to be employed as a raw material for the production of fuels and chemicals given the abundant volumes globally generated, its contained diversity of functionalised chemical components and the opportunity to be utilised for higher value applications. The present manuscript is aimed to provide a general overview of the current and most innovative uses of food supply chain waste, providing a range of worldwide case-studies from around the globe. These studies will focus on examples illustrating the use of citrus peel, waste cooking oil and cashew shell nut liquid in countries such as China, the UK, Tanzania, Spain, Greece or Morocco. This work emphasises 2nd generation food waste valorisation and re-use strategies for the production of higher value and marketable products rather than conventional food waste processing (incineration for energy recovery, feed or composting) while highlighting issues linked to the use of food waste as a sustainable raw material. The influence of food regulations on food supply chain waste valorisation will also be addressed as well as our society's behavior towards food supply chain waste. “There was no ways of dealing with it that have not been known for thousands of years. These ways are essentially four: dumping it, burning it, converting it into something that can be used again, and minimizing the volume of material goods – future garbage – that is produced in the first place.” William Rathje on waste (1945–2012) – Director of the Tucson Garbage project.

Performance of Briquetting Machine for Briquette Fuel

Cashew nut shell, grass and rice husk were used as major biomass in the form of raw biomass, hydrolyzed biomass and carbonized biomass. Carbonized biomass was found suitable as compared to raw (as such) and hydrolyzed biomass for briquetted fuel. The briquettes were prepared on screw press extruder briquetting machine for different combinations of major biomass. The prepared briquettes after sun drying were subjected to various tests for assessing the quality of fuel. The suitability of briquetted fuel as domestic fuel was studied with standard water boiling test. Cashew shell briquettes burnt with good flame in cook stove and observed 15.5 per cent thermal efficiency. Better results in cashew shell briquettes related to calorific value, shattering indices test, tumbling test, degree of densification, energy density ratio, resistance to water penetration and water boiling test as compared to grass and rice husk briquettes were observed. Calorific value was found more in cashew shell briquetted fuel as 5154.58 kcal/kg. Net Present Value of cashew shell, grass and rice husk briquettes were 1935370.8, 2256434.38 and 631948.8 respectively. Pay back period for cashew shell, grass, rice husk briquettes were 8.1, 7.56 and 29.35 months respectively. Benefit Cost Ratio for cashew shell, grass, and rice husk briquettes were 2.8, 2.93 and 1.51 respectively.

Cashew Nut Shell Waste: Availability in Small-Scale Cashew Processing Industries and Its Fuel Properties for Gasification

The energy and mass flow of the steam cooking operation of three readily defined small-scale cashew processing industries was studied to estimate the availability of cashew nut shell. The proximate analysis of cashew shell waste was carried out using ASTMD 73–75 method. The calorific value of the cashew shell was carried out using bomb calorimeter (ASTME 711). The thermogravimetric analysis of the cashew shell was carried out using TG-FTIR with 10∘C/minute heating rate. The study revealed that, the small-scale cashew processing industries followed steam-cooking process with average energy consumption accounted to be 2969.7 MJ per 1000 kg of raw cashew seed. The cashew shell waste generated in small-scale cashew processing industries was found to be 67.5% of total weight of cashew seed, which can be utilized as fuel for thermal energy supply. The average higher calorific value of the cashew nut shell was found to be 4890 kcal/kg. The thermogravimetric analysis revealed that 85% weight of cashew nut shell has been degraded at 500∘C and in 13 minutes. The availability and fuel analysis of the cashew shell as a fuel revealed its suitability as a supplementary fuel for thermal application through pyrolysis in the industry.

Some Prophylactic Options to Mitigate Methane Emission from Animal Agriculture in Japan

The abatement of methane emission from ruminants is an important global issue due to its contribution to greenhouse gas with carbon dioxide. Methane is generated in the rumen by methanogens (archaea) that utilize metabolic hydrogen () to reduce carbon dioxide, and is a significant electron sink in the rumen ecosystem. Therefore, the competition for hydrogen used for methanogenesis with alternative reductions of rumen microbes should be an effective option to reduce rumen methanogenesis. Some methanogens parasitically survive on the surface of ciliate protozoa, so that defaunation or decrease in protozoa number might contribute to abate methanogenesis. The most important issue for mitigation of rumen methanogenesis with manipulators is to secure safety for animals and their products and the environment. In this respect, prophylactic effects of probiotics, prebiotics and miscellaneous compounds to mitigate rumen methanogenesis have been developed instead of antibiotics, ionophores such as monensin, and lasalocid in Japan. Nitrate suppresses rumen methanogenesis by its reducing reaction in the rumen. However, excess intake of nitrate causes intoxication due to nitrite accumulation, which induces methemoglobinemia. The nitrite accumulation is attributed to a relatively higher rate of nitrate reduction to nitrite than nitrite to ammonia via nitroxyl and hydroxylamine. The in vitro and in vivo trials have been conducted to clarify the prophylactic effects of L-cysteine, some strains of lactic acid bacteria and yeast and/or 1-4 galactooligosaccharide on nitrate-nitrite intoxication and methanogenesis. The administration of nitrate with 1-4 galacto-oligosaccharide, Candida kefyr, and Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis were suggested to possibly control rumen methanogenesis and prevent nitrite formation in the rumen. For prebiotics, nisin which is a bacteriocin produced by Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis has been demonstrated to abate rumen methanogenesis in the same manner as monensin. A protein resistant anti-microbe (PRA) has been isolated from Lactobacillus plantarum as a manipulator to mitigate rumen methanogenesis. Recently, hydrogen peroxide was identified as a part of the manipulating effect of PRA on rumen methanogenesis. The suppressing effects of secondary metabolites from plants such as saponin and tannin on rumen methanogenesis have been examined. Especially, yucca schidigera extract, sarsaponin (steroidal glycosides), can suppress rumen methanogenesis thereby improving protein utilization efficiency. The cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL), or cashew shell oil, which is a natural resin found in the honeycomb structure of the cashew nutshell has been found to mitigate rumen methanogenesis. In an attempt to seek manipulators in the section on methane belching from ruminants, the arrangement of an inventory of mitigation technologies available for the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI) in the Kyoto mechanism has been advancing to target ruminant livestock in Asian and Pacific regions.

Eco-friendly utilization of parabolic concentrating solar cooker for extraction of cashew nut shell oil and household cooking

India is the largest producer, processor, exporter, and second largest consumer of cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) in the world. India processed about 11,80,000 million tonnes of raw cashew seeds. The large quantity of cashew shell is unutilized due to the expensive method of oil extraction and liberation of acidic flumes during direct combustion. The parabolic concentrating solar cooker (sk-14) was evaluated for cooking and generation of heat for cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) extraction. The CNSL extractor was developed and evaluated for thermal profile and CNSL recovery. The no-load temperature of 320 °C was reached inside the extractor. The average oil recovery was reported to be 55–70%. The physical properties (specific gravity, viscosity, proximate analysis, pH, iodine value, and calorific value) of solar-heated untreated oil was evaluated and compared with standard properties as per IS840-1964. The de-oiled cashew shell waste was evaluated for fuel properties using the ASTM D-3173-3175 method.

Energy Option for Small Scale Cashew Nut Processing in India

Problem statement: Cashew (Anacardium Occidentale L.) is one of the important tropical crops. India processed about 11,80,000 metric tons of raw cashew nut seeds through 3650 cashew processing industries scattered in many states of country. The cashew nut processing industries are typically located in the rural and backward areas. The most significant difficulty in processing cashew nuts is that the hard outer shell, which contains the edible kernel, contains a caustic oil which can burn the skin and produce noxious fumes when heated. More recently, smaller scale factories use the steaming and cutting method. Approach: At present cashew industries facing problem of interrupted power supply which affect the economical growth of the sector. The cashew industries in India employed different unit operations/methodology for processing depend on variety of raw material, location, technological mechanization, availability of secured energy supply. Results: Large disparities in energy intensity for similar process in the cashew processing reveal the scope for energy conservation to be in the order of 30-48%. There is good scope for effective utilization of solar energy and biomass gasification technology for energy generation in the sector. Conclusion: This study deled with the elucidation of the processing operations in the small-scale cashew processing of Maharashtra with identification of energy consumption for unit operations. The energy conservation opportunities in the cashew nut processing sector were discussed in the study. The scope for utilization of renewable energy technologies like solar dryers for drying of cashew nut seed and cashew kernel were elaborated. The characterization of cashew shell waste available in the processing industry revealed the scope for thermal gasification of shell for heat generation.

Processed cashew shell waste as fuel supplement for heat generation

Processed cashew shell waste as fuel supplement for heat generation

Pressure profile separation of phenolic liquid compounds from cashew ( Anacardium occidentale) shell with supercritical carbon dioxide and aspects of its phase equilibria

Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) can be separated from fragmented honeycombed cashew shell material without employing thermal techniques with a pressure profile method that uses supercritical carbon dioxide as solvent. In the method, materials are contacted with CO 2 at elevated pressure (ca. 30 MPa) for a given period of time (ca. 1 h) and then pressure is released before the separation process is begun. Using the method, extraction yields of CNSL of up to 10 times those obtained by usual supercritical fluid extraction were achieved. The CNSL obtained was clear with a yellow-light brown color. Analysis with liquid chromatography of the extracts contained approximately 50 mol% anacardic acids, 29 mol% cardols, and 21 mol% cardanols including mono-, di-, and tri-ene constituents. Phase equilibrium data of the extracted CNSL with CO 2 were measured at temperatures from 25 to 98 °C, at pressures from 1.7 to 11 MPa, and at CO 2 weight fractions from 0.0329 to 0.1139. Liquid–liquid–vapor equilibria occurs and the CO 2–CNSL system has an upper critical end point at 31.13 °C and 7.402 MPa. Liquid–vapor equilibrium data were used to develop a model for describing the solubility of the CO 2 in the CNSL phase. Based on calculations with the model, it was found that the temperature has different effects on the solubility depending on the pressure. At low pressures (<ca. 12 MPa), increasing temperature results in a decrease in CO 2 solubility in the CNSL phase. At pressures higher than 20 MPa, increasing temperature results in an increase in CO 2 solubility in the CNSL phase. Conditions that resulted in higher CO 2 solubilities in the CNSL gave high extraction yields. The extraction mechanism of pressure profile method seems to occur by (i) penetration of the CO 2 through the shell material, (ii) dissolution of the CO 2 into the CNSL, (iii) expansion and rupture of the shell matrix due to depressurization that increases mass transfer and phase contact area.

Performance prediction and validation of equilibrium modeling for gasification of cashew nut shell char

Cashew nut shell, a waste product obtained during deshelling of cashew kernels, had in the past been deemed unfit as a fuel for gasification owing to its high occluded oil content. The oil, a source of natural phenol, oozes upon gasification, thereby clogging the gasifier throat, downstream equipment and associated utilities with oil, resulting in ineffective gasification and premature failure of utilities due to its corrosive characteristics. To overcome this drawback, the cashew shells were de-oiled by charring in closed chambers and were subsequently gasified in an autothermal downdraft gasifier. Equilibrium modeling was carried out to predict the producer gas composition under varying performance influencing parameters, viz., equivalence ratio (ER), reaction temperature (RT) and moisture content (MC). The results were compared with the experimental output and are presented in this paper. The model is quite satisfactory with the experimental outcome at the ER applicable to gasification systems, i.e., 0.15 to 0.30. The results show that the mole fraction of (i) H2, CO and CH4 decreases while (N2 + H2O) and CO2 increases with ER, (ii) H2 and CO increases while CH4, (N2 + H2O) and CO2 decreases with reaction temperature, (iii) H2, CH4, CO2 and (N2 + H2O) increases while CO decreases with moisture content. However at an equivalence ratio less than 0.15, the model predicts an unrealistic composition and is observed to be non valid below this ER.

Modeling and Experimental Validation of Cashew Nut Shell Char Gasification Adopting Chemical Equilibrium Approach

Cashew nut shell, a waste product obtained during deshelling of cashew kernels, by past field experience, had been deemed as a fuel unfit for gasification, owing to its high occluded oil content. The oil, a source of natural phenol, oozes upon gasification, thereby making the gasifier throat, downstream equipment, and associated utilities clogged with oil, leading to ineffective gasification and premature failure of utilities because of its inherent corrosive characteristics. To overcome this drawback, the cashew shells were deoiled, by charring them in closed chambers, and were subsequently gasified in an autothermal down-draft gasifier. Stoichiometric and nonstoichiometric (adopting Gibbs free-energy minimization concept) equilibrium modelings were carried out to predict the behavior of the system under varying performance-influencing parameters, viz., equivalence ratio and moisture content. The outcome of the modeling was compared to that of experimental results. The trends of both the models predictin...

Dermatitis from cashew nuts

Between April 4 and May 10, 1982, fifty-four individuals developed a poison ivy-like dermatitis 1 to 8 days after eating imported cashew nuts. The patients had a very pruritic, erythematous, maculopapular eruption that was accentuated in the flexural areas of the body. Three had blistering of the mouth and four had rectal itching. Nineteen volunteers (eleven ill and eight well) were patch-tested with 2.5 micrograms of poison ivy urushiol and an acetone extract of cashew nut shells. Patch testing did not predict illness since positive tests to both materials occurred in those who had been ill as well as in those who had been well. Absence of cashew nut shells from two thirds of the bags probably accounted for the lack of correlation between patch testing and illness. All nine who reacted to the cashew extract also reacted to poison ivy urushiol. The three who were not sensitive to poison ivy had no reaction to cashew extract. Mass spectrometry of the cashew shell extract suggested the presence of cardol , one of the allergens in cashew shell oil.

The cashew’s brighter future

The cashew tree, native to Brazil was introduced into India in the 16th century for the purpose of checking erosion on the coasts. India is a world leader in the production and export of cashew nuts, while cultivation of this crop in the western hemisphere has remained negligible. Present demand far exceeds the supply. New developments in processing methods and machinery, and new uses for by-products, particularly cashew shell oil, have stimulated cashew culture in East Africa and Brazil and should give impetus to establishment of this lucrative crop on a commercial basis in other tropical areas.