Cashew Nut Shell Research Articles

Effect of injection parameters and EGR on performance and emissions in a CRDI engine fuelled with cashew nut shell biodiesel blend

Stringent emission norms and requirement of energy security facilitate researchers to explore the use of alternate fuels and work on methods to optimise fuel injection parameters. The effects of injection timings (ITs), split injection and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine fuelled with cashew nut shell biodiesel blends are investigated. Initially, experiments are conducted with diesel, B5 and B10 with original IT of 14.2° bTDC with direct injection and are considered as base reading. The fuel injection is optimised (at 10.2° bTDC and 15% split injection), and the effect of EGR rate at this optimised condition is analysed. Experiments are conducted with diesel, B5 and B10 with EGR rates of 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% at optimised injection condition for various loads. NOx reduced by 67%, 68% and 56% for diesel, B5 and B10 at full load compared to base readings. Smoke emissions reduced by 3–3.5%, and CO emissions reduced by around 50% for diesel and biodiesel blends at full load.

Novel Hydroxylated Cardanol Quaternary Ammonium Salts from Renewable Resource and its Synergistic Vesicles of Binary and Ternary Composite System in Detergent

AbstractA series of novel hydroxylated cardanol quaternary ammonium salts (HCQAS 3a–3g) with one or two hydroxyl groups, derived from renewable cardanol, a plant‐based and low‐cost material natural cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL), have been rationally designed and investigated as additive in detergent. CMC, γCMC, C20, pC20, and CMC/C20 were employed to exhibit the surface properties of HCQAS, reflecting that the surfactivity were superior to general cationic surfactants. In addition, HCQAS revealed excellent water solubility and wettability by krafft point and contact angle tests. Moreover, emulsifiability and foamability conversions were monitored versus time and volume of foam, respectively. Also, TEM micrographs were taken to provide the aggregation morphologies of HCQAS 3a aqueous solution at different concentration. Furthermore, HCQAS 3a and BGF‐10 binary composite system as well as HCQAS 3a, BGF‐10, and SDBS ternary composite system were investigated by CMC, γCMC, emulsifiability, and foamability to determine the optimum molar ratio (HCQAS 3a: BGF‐10: SDBS = 0.24:0.36:0.4), and then, analysis of morphology by TEM showed that the incorporation of HCQAS 3a, BGF‐10, and SDBS in aqueous solution accelerated the formation of abundant vesicles with large volume and surface area. Finally, a green concentrated detergent was designed and prepared with the filtered ratio, where the presence of vesicles greatly enhanced detergency to promisingly replace the familiar use of petroleum‐based TX‐10 in detergent. This study on the structure and performance of HCQAS may shed some light on the development of novel environmentally friendly surfactant.

Coating of Pd and Co on Mordenite for a Catalyst of Hydrotreating of Cashew Nut Shell Liquid into Biofuel

The catalytic activity of Co and Pd loaded on mordenite (MOR) was evaluated in the hydrotreatment of cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) into biofuel. Metals were loaded into MOR as support via wet impregnation process. The Co content was varied as 2, 4, and 6 wt.% to produce Co(1)/MOR, Co(2)/MOR, Co(3)/MOR catalysts. The micro-mesoporous structure of the catalyst was confirmed by XRD, SEM, TEM, FTIR, and N2 adsorption-desorption measurement. AAS were used to analyze the amount of metal that is successfully loaded in the catalysts. Hydrotreating of the CNSL was conducted in a semi-batch reactor at 450 °C with hydrogen flow (20 mL/min) for 2 h. The liquid product was analyzed using GC-MS. The activity of Co/MOR was compared with the activity of Pd/MOR as a noble metal. The result of the hydrotreatment process showed a decrease of liquid product in the sequence of Co(3)/MOR > Co(2)/MOR > Pd/MOR > Co(1)/MOR > MOR. The Co(3)/MOR catalyst exhibited the highest conversion of liquid hydrocarbon than the others (61.8 wt.%), comprising predominantly by gasoline compounds with over 25.21 wt.% conversion.

Analisis Nilai Kapasitansi Komposit Lithium Besi Oksida (Li5FeO4) dan Karbon Aktif Kulit Biji Mete sebagai Bahan Dasar Elektroda Baterai Lithium: Efek Variasi Massa

Previous researchers have investigated the manufacture of lithium battery electrode materials from Li5FeO4 composites with activated carbon of cashew nutshells. However, the effect of combining activated carbon to the lithium battery electrode material was not reviewed. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the comparison of the mass composition of Li5FeO4 and cashew nut shell active carbon on the capacitance value of the lithium battery electrode. These electrodes generated using the high-temperature solid-state method. The material used is iron oxide Fe2O3 from iron sand and LiOH.H2O, which homogenized with a sintering temperature of 850̊C for 15 hours with a ratio of 6/1 to produce Li5FeO4. Then Li5FeO4 was compiled with activated carbon of cashew nut shells with a mass fraction of activated carbon 60%, 50%, 40%, and 20%. Furthermore, it characterized using cyclic voltammetry. The results of cyclic voltammetry characterization for a mass fraction of 60% produce a capacitance of 4.7 F / g, a mass fraction of 50% produces a capacitance of 59.1 F / g, a mass fraction of 40% produces a capacitance of 87, 3 F / g, and a mass fraction of 20% produces capacitance of 243 F / g. From the four variations of mass fraction, the capacitance that meets the lithium battery electrode capacitance on the market is the mass fraction of 20%.

Performance, emission characteristics of compressed ignition engine with alternative fuel

The primary study is to take the alternative fuel using cashew nut shell liquid as bio-diesel and to moderate the continuous issues posed by the reducing petroleum backup. Cashew nut shell is pulverized and the oil is extracted. The CNSL is then converted in to bio-diesel by transesterification process. The properties of liquid thus accomplished are characterized. The investigational results verified the fact that CNSL consists mostly phenolic compounds. The bio-diesel thus obtained is blended with neat diesel in the ratios 2080 (B20) and 6040 (B60) per litre. The blended mixture is then tested for performance and combustion using Variable Compression Ratio (VCR) Engine set up. The emission characteristics are tested using computerized AVL Smoke Metre.

Chemopreventive Effect of Methanol Extract of Anacardium Occidentale Nut Shell on Ultra-Violet Radiation Induced Skin Damage

Anacardium occidentale nut shell liquid which is mostly known as cashew nut shell liquid has been used for decades especially by natives of South America, Asia and Africa in the treatment of topical skin diseases, skin abrasion and cancerous ulcers amongst others. Some previous studies attempted to link pharmacological activities to the antibacterial, antioxidant and anti-proliferative properties of CNSL. Chronic exposure to sunlight can lead to skin damages including erythema, edema, hyperplasia, formation of sunburn cells, photoaging, suppression of the immune system and skin cancer. This study was aimed at evaluating the effect of methanol extract of Anacardium occidentale nut shell liquid on UV induced skin damage and cancer initiation. Gas chromatography and mass spectroscopic analysis was carried out on the extract. Skin damage was induced by exposing the hairless part of the experimental animals (albino rats) directly to UVR for 42 days alongside treatment with methanol extract of cashew nut shell following the experimental design. Percentage weight gain, relative organ weight, lipid peroxidation and histological studies were carried out to evaluate the impact of the UVR exposure and the chemo preventive effect of the extract. The methanol extract of CNS as determined by GC-MS analysis contains 1,2,3-Benzenetriol and benzofuran. A normal skin tissue and hepatocyte was observed in the normal control, severe wrinkling of skin epithelium with actinic keratosis of the dermal collagen and marked venous congestion in the liver of the negative control and complete recovery in the group treated with 300 mg/kg of the extract was observed. Marked serboheic keratosis and venous congestion in the liver was seen in the untreated groups. This study suggest that the administration of methanol extract of CNS exhibited a chemo preventive effect against skin damage which could lead to cancer initiation stage resulting from ultraviolet radiation by preventing its detrimental impact on the epidermis which could in turn lead to DNA damage and subsequently skin cancer initiation. 1,2,3-Benzenetriol and benzofuran which according to previous studies, exhibits anticancer, antioxidant and antibacterial activity were present in the extract, these compounds amongst others are believed to be responsible for the pharmacological activities observed in the study.

Insecticidal activity of cashew nut shell liquid against sucking pests of cowpea, Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis (L.) Verdc.

Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL), an important agro waste from cashew nut processing factories, was emulsified in water and assayed for insecticidal activity at concentrations ranging from 0.05 to 0.2 % against aphid, Aphis craccivora and pod bug, Riptortus pedestris infesting cowpea, Vigna unguiculata sesquipedalis under laboratory conditions by topical application. CNSL at various concentrations was found to have insecticidal properties against A. craccivora and R. pedestris wherein the speed of kill and efficacy varied with concentration and test insect. CNSL @ 0.1 % with mortality ranging from 95.83 to 100 per cent at 48 hours after treatment (HAT) was found effective against A. craccivora whereas a concentration of 0.2% was required against R. pedestris to achieve similar mortality (96.67 to 100 %) at 72 HAT. CNSL derived from two cashew nut processing methods (drum roasting and steam boiling) did not differ significantly in their insecticidal action. At concentrations of 0.1 and 0.2 %, mortality produced by CNSL was comparable to that of chemical insecticide, thiamethoxam 0.03% and significantly superior to the widely used botanical neem oil @ 2% against A. craccivora and R. pedestris respectively. R. pedestris that survived exposure to CNSL treatments exhibited developmental abnormalities and formation of nymphal adult intermediary indicating its possible insect growth regulatory effect.

Performance and pollutant analysis of diesel engine with cashew shell oil as bio-material

The aim is to identify the substitute fuel using Cashew Nut Shell Liquid as bio-diesel and to lessen the difficulties pretended by the environmental degradation. Cashew nut shell is pulverized and the oil is extracted. The bio-diesel thus obtained is blended with neat diesel in the ratios 20:80, 40:60 and 60:40 per litre. The blended mixture is then tested for emission characteristics using computerized AVL Smoke Metre. Based on several studies, it is commonly noticed that CNSL biodiesel is utilized as posing numerous benefits, with sustainability, reduction of CO, HC and NOx and several detrimental pollutants.

Environment-friendly synthesis of palladium nanoparticles loaded on Zeolite Type-Y (Na-form) using Anacardium Occidentale shell extract (Cashew nut shell extract), characterization and application in C C coupling reaction

Abstract Environment-friendly synthesis of heterogeneous nanoparticles is more effective in action of their properties. In the present study, PdNP@Zeolite Type-Y (Na-form) has been successfully synthesized by applying a simple reduction method using an aqueous extract of Anacardium Occidentale shell as a reducing and stabilizing agent. The aqueous extract from the Anacardium Occidentale shell acts both as a reducing agent and a capping agent for converting the Pd2+ to Pd°. The PdNP@Zeolite Type-Y (Na-form) is characterized using FTIR, FE-SEM/EDS, PXRD, ICP-AES, BET, TGA and HR-TEM. The crystal structure of PdNP@Zeolite Type-Y (Na-form) is determined by powder X-ray diffraction analysis. The experimental studies have revealed that when palladium nanoparticles are loaded on zeolite Type-Y (Na-form) they exhibit excellent catalytic activity for Suzuki-Miyaura cross coupling reaction. We showed high efficiency, high selectivity and excellent TONs (1540-2100), TOFs (6160-8400) by using small amount of PdNP@Zeolite Type-Y (Na-form) catalyst at lower time. Moreover, the catalyst can be recycled without significant loss of its catalytic activity. The present strategy is the reliable for preparing heterogeneous nanocatalyst and has a broad application in organic transformations.

Preparation and properties of silane-modified cardanol–benzoxazine for hydrophobic coating

Cardanol is a kind of green industrial raw material, refined from cashew nut shell oil by advanced technology, which has shown potential for anticorrosion coating application. A new cardanol-based benzoxazine monomer (CB) was synthesized by Mannich condensation of a cardanol, paraformaldehyde, and cardanol aldehyde amine (Carala), which was prepared based on cardanol, paraformaldehyde, and triethylenetetramine, and finally, the cardanol-based benzoxazines containing amino group were modified by silane (CBSi). Cardanol, Carala, and CB were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Furthermore, the cured films have been evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), respectively. The result of DSC of CB and CBSi showed that curing behavior of CBSi was similar to that of CB; however, the enthalpy of polymerization reaction corresponding to CB and CBSi is 84.7 J g−1 and 91.3 J g−1, respectively, and exothermic enthalpy of CBSi is slightly higher than that of CB. TGA results illuminated that the thermal stability and char yield of cardanol-based polybenzoxazine could be enhanced due to increment of silane, and residual char yield at 700°C of CBSi30 is 13%. Especially, incorporation of silane could improve the water contact angle, which can increase from 78.7° to 98.9° when the ratio of γ-(2,3-epoxypropoxy) propytrimethoxysilane to CB increases from 0% to 30%.

Greenhouse gas emissions and energy assessment of modified diesohol using cashew nut shell liquid and biodiesel as additives

The development of sustainable biofuel production has been promoted in many countries to reduce the use of fossil fuel. This work analyses the life cycle global warming impact, net energy and fossil energy ratios for two alternatives diesohol (diesel/bioethanol) fuels and a new modified diesohol using distilled cashew nut shell liquid/biodiesel. Owing to the molecular structure, biodiesel and distilled cashew nut shell liquid can be used as emulsifier to stabilise the diesohol as well as to slightly reduce the portion of diesel in the blend. The uncertainty analysis, land use change impact, and cost performance comparison in the life cycle assessment were also considered. The well-to-wheel analysis of the biofuel life cycle was used as a system boundary. The results indicated that the global warming impact and the energy performance were not significantly different among the three diesohol alternatives. The global warming impact of all studied alternative fuels was estimated as 68.22–75.69 kg CO2 equivalent/1000 MJ, which was 18–26% lower than that of conventional diesel. This was due to the environmental benefits obtained from biodiesel, bioethanol, and distilled cashew nut shell liquid, avoiding CO2 emissions from combustion in fuel blends because they are of biogenic origin. The substitution of diesel by fuel blends resulted in the net energy ratios (1.01–1.08) and fossil energy ratios (0.96–1.04) of the three alternatives diesohol fuels that were 14–19% and 9–16% higher than that of the conventional diesel. The fossil energy ratios of fuel blends were slightly lower than the net energy ratios by 3.70–4.95%. The LCIA result showed that, according to the uncertainty analysis, the global warming impact from well-to-wheel analysis of the modified diesohol fuel with 85 vol.% diesel, 15 vol.% bioethanol and 20 vol.% (based on the combined volume of diesel and bioethanol) biodiesel was, with 100% probability, less than that of other disohol alternatives studied. The results indicated that alternative diesohol fuel in the case of 15% bioethanol was an environmental and economic superior choice of all studied alternatives fuels because of its lowest global warming impact (with and without LUC), while providing the highest energy efficiency with the net energy ratio and fossil energy ratio of 1.08 and 1.04, respectively. To improve the performance in terms of environmental and eonomic perspectives, the integration of fossil fuels and biofuels would improve the sustainable choices and promote the value-added domestic materials from renewable resources for transportation fuels in Thailand.

THE EFFECT OF NICKEL CONTENT IMPREGNATED ON ZEOLITE TOWARD CATALYTIC ACTIVITY AND SELECTIVITY FOR HYDROTREATING OF CASHEW NUT SHELL LIQUID OIL

This research aims to investigate the effect of various amount of Ni metal which is impregnated on Mordenitetoward the catalytic activity of the Cashew Nut Shell Liquid Oil (CNSLO) hydrotreating process. The Ni/Mordenitecatalysts were prepared by wet impregnation method using Ni(NO3)2ꞏ6H2O with the Ni content varied under 1, 3, 5wt.% and mordenite which were dissolved in methanol and carried out drying, calcination, and reduction.Hydrotreating is carried out in a semi-batch stainless steel reactor which is flowed with H2 gas. The catalyst wascharacterized and analyzed by Fourier Transform Infrared, X-Ray Diffractometer, Scanning Electron Microscope-Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometer, Transmission Electron Microscopy, Gas Sorption Analyzer, and AtomicAbsorption Spectrophotometer. The total acid amount test was carried out using ammonia vapor adsorption with thegravimetric method. The liquid product of hydrotreating was analyzed by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy.Increasing the amount of metal impregnated on mordenite will increase the total acid site, activity, and selectivity ofthe gasoline fraction.

THE EFFECT OF NICKEL CONTENT IMPREGNATED ON ZEOLITE TOWARD CATALYTIC ACTIVITY AND SELECTIVITY FOR HYDROTREATING OF CASHEW NUT SHELL LIQUID OIL

This research aims to investigate the effect of various amount of Ni metal which is impregnated on Mordenitetoward the catalytic activity of the Cashew Nut Shell Liquid Oil (CNSLO) hydrotreating process. The Ni/Mordenitecatalysts were prepared by wet impregnation method using Ni(NO3)2ꞏ6H2O with the Ni content varied under 1, 3, 5wt.% and mordenite which were dissolved in methanol and carried out drying, calcination, and reduction.Hydrotreating is carried out in a semi-batch stainless steel reactor which is flowed with H2 gas. The catalyst wascharacterized and analyzed by Fourier Transform Infrared, X-Ray Diffractometer, Scanning Electron Microscope-Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometer, Transmission Electron Microscopy, Gas Sorption Analyzer, and AtomicAbsorption Spectrophotometer. The total acid amount test was carried out using ammonia vapor adsorption with thegravimetric method. The liquid product of hydrotreating was analyzed by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy.Increasing the amount of metal impregnated on mordenite will increase the total acid site, activity, and selectivity ofthe gasoline fraction.

Biological Evaluation of Some Plant Bioactives as Feed Additives to Replace Antibiotic Growth Promoters in Broiler Feeds

Antibiotics (AGP) have been used as feed additives to promote growth and feed efficiency in poultry production. However, many countries include Indonesia now ban the use of AGP and attempts are made to replace the antibiotic to maintain good performances of broilers. Plant bioactives is one of the alternatives that could replace the AGP. An experiment was conducted in an attempt to replace the AGP in broiler feed with a mixture of some plant bioactives<strong> </strong>(liquid smoke of cashew nutshell, <em>Phyllanthus niruri,</em> and clove leaves). Eight (8) dietary treatments were formulated to have similar nutrients consist of negative control (NC), positive control (NC+AGP), diets supplemented with liquid plant bioactives in 3 levels and diets supplemented with powder plant bioactives in 3 levels. Each diet was fed to 6 replications of 10 birds each from 1 to 35 days old. The performances and the immune response of the broilers due to the treatments were observed. Results showed that the powder plant bioactives could not improve the performance of broilers. None of the feed additives (AGP or plant bioactives) affect the immune systems of the broilers. However, liquid plant bioactives in low dose improved the performance of broilers better than the AGP and therefore is suitable to replace the antibiotic as feed additives in broiler diet.

Isolation and characterization of cellulose from cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) nut shells

Cashew nut shells are agro-waste after the flesh and oil have been extracted from edible cashew nut. In this study, cashew nut shells (CNS) were utilized as the raw material for obtaining purified cellulose. The modified acid hydrolysis method was used to isolate cellulose from dewaxed CNS using 7% (w/v) nitric acid, alkaline treatment (17.5% w/v NaOH) and bleaching with 3.5% (v/v) sodium hypochlorite solution (NaOCl). Micromophologies, chemical functional groups and thermal stabilities of the obtained crystalline cellulose samples were obtained via Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Fourier Transforms Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Thermogravimetry Analysis (TGA) respectively. The presence of inherent elements such as C, Ca, Mg and Fe were obtained in the distinct rod-like shaped cellulose. Structural changes revealed via FTIR and XRD show that, after undergoing a temperature range of 300–400 ​°C ​± ​10%, a yield of 20.8% of highly crystalline cellulose whose crystallinity index of 77.7%. This implies that the CNS can be repurposed as raw material for the production of cellulose fibres that are used for packaging, reinforcement and binders for some industrial products.

Investigation on the effect of diethyl ether with hydrogen-enriched cashew nut shell (CNS) biodiesel in direct injection (DI) diesel engine

The current research paper deals with the experimentation on direct injection diesel engine characteristics for different proportions of diethyl ether in diesel-hydrogen-cashew nut shell liquid blends. Initially, the optimized B20 (20% CNSL and 80% diesel) blend was tested with different proportions of hydrogen such as 4, 6 and 8 L per minute which were optimized at 6 lpm H2 flow rate. The diethyl ether, of 2%, 4%, and 6% proportions, is blended with B20 in which the 6 lpm H2 flow rate was maintained as constant. The experiments were conducted in a single-cylinder diesel engine with a constant speed of 1500 rpm. From the experimentation, it was revealed that the brake thermal efficiency got increased whereas the exhaust emission of both Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon got decreased when H2 is added with CNSLB20. But the NOx emission got increased with H2 addition. Further, the 6 lpm H2-CNSLB20 and diethyl ether with 6% blends exhibited 43% and 50% decrease respectively in hydrocarbon and CO emissions, when compared to CNSLB20. The brake specific fuel consumption got reduced up to 45% in the fuel combination mentioned above. Meanwhile, when DEE was added with 6 lpm H2-CNSLB20 fuel combinations, the NOx emission, in-cylinder pressure, and heat release rate were increased.

Transesterification Reaction of Palm Kernel Oil (PKO) on a Bed of Crushed Cashew Nut Shell (CCNS)

Biodiesel (GA1) was produced by the transesterification reaction of palm kernel oil (PKO) and methanol catalysed by crushed cashew nut shaft. Biodiesel samples GA2 – GA4 were also produced from the palm kernel oil using conventional base catalysis by NaOH and crushed cashew nut shaft combined with NaOH. The physico-chemical properties and spectroscopic data of the four samples were found to be similar and compared favourably to those of standard biodiesel.
 Keywords: Transesterification, palm kernel oil, cashew nut shell, methanolysis, biodiesel.

Purified anacardic acids exert multiple neuroprotective effects in pesticide model of Parkinson's disease: in vivo and in silico analysis.

Parkinson's disease (PD) induced by environmental toxins involves a multifactorial cascade of harmful factors, thus motivating the search for therapeutic agents able to act on the greatest number of molecular targets. This study evaluated the efficacy of 50 mg/kg purified anacardic acids (AAs), isolated from cashew nut shell liquid, on multiple steps of oxidative stress and inflammation induced by rotenone in the substantia nigra (SN) and striatum. Adult mice were divided into four groups: Control, rotenone, AAs + rotenone, and AAs alone. Lipoperoxidation, nitric oxide (NO) levels, and reduced glutathione (GSH)/oxidized gluthatione (GSSG) ratio were evaluated. NF-kB-p65, pro-IL-1β, cleaved IL-1β, metalloproteinase-9, Tissue Inhibitory Factor-1 (TIMP-1), tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) levels were assessed by Western blot. In silico studies were also made using the SwissADME web tool. Rotenone increased lipoperoxidation and NO production and reduced TH levels and GSH/GSSG ratio in both SN and striatum. It also enhanced NF-kB-p65, pro, and cleaved IL-1β, MMP-9, GFAP levels compared to control and AAs groups. The AAs alone reduced pro-IL-1β in the striatum while they augmented TIMP1 and reduced MMP-9 amounts in both regions. AAs reversed rotenone-induced effects on lipoperoxidation, NO production, and GSH/GSSG ratio, as well as increased TH and attenuated pro-IL-1β and MMP-9 levels in both regions, NF-kB-p65 in the SN and GFAP in the striatum. Altogether, the in vivo and in silico analysis reinforced multiple and defined molecular targets of AAs, identifying that they are promising neuroprotective drug candidates for PD, acting against oxidative and inflammatory conditions induced by rotenone.

Mechanical properties enhancement of cardanol by hybridization with kenaf/recycled carbon

Cardanol is a novolac phenolic resin derived from cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL) with low mechanical properties due to its high brittleness. It is a potential resin for aerospace industry due to its high thermal resistance. In this study, to enhance the mechanical properties of cardanol, it was hybridized with kenaf/recycled carbon to produce biodegradable composites. The mechanical properties (tensile, flexural, and impact strength) of the hybrid composites were determined as per ASTM standards. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of tensile fracture samples were also analyzed. The mechanical results indicate that the hybridization enhances the mechanical strength of the cardanol significantly. The enhancement in tensile strength is 129.7% when cardanol was reinforced with 35wt. % kenaf and 15wt. % carbon. While flexural and impact strength were improved by 37.6% and 104% respectively both when cardanol was hybridized with 15wt. % kenaf and 35wt. % carbon The morphology study suggests that the carbon acts as a layer at the bottom of the mold due to its inhomogeneity and sedimentation.

Kinetic, equilibrium, thermodynamic, and desorption studies for sequestration of acid dye using waste biomass as sustainable adsorbents

In the present study, tea waste (TW) and cashew nut shell (CNS), waste biomasses are employed in removal of Acid Green 25 dye from aqueous media. Adsorbents are characterized using BET, SEM, zeta potential, and FTIR analyses. BET surface area was obtained as 25.70 and 68.82 m2 g−1 for CNS and TW, respectively. The efficacy of dye removal in the batch study was determined by varying the operating parameters like pH, adsorbent loading, contact time, influent concentration, and temperature. Maximum adsorption was obtained at a pH of 1 using TW and CNS. Adsorbent loading was established at 0.15 g of TW and 0.2 g of CNS. Adsorption was favored at the higher temperatures. Maximum uptake capacities were obtained as 123.46 and 76.34 mg g−1 for TW and CNS, respectively. Better results of dye removal were established for TW in comparison with CNS. Equilibrium data have been well exemplified by Langmuir model, whereas kinetic data suited well to the pseudo-second-order equation for dye removal using TW and CNS. Evaluation of thermodynamic parameters confirmed the spontaneous and physical nature of the studied adsorption. Weber-Morris model established the involvement of different stages in the rate-controlling mechanism. Reusability study performed in five cycles confirmed the potential of TW in removal of Acid Green 25 dye from aqueous media as a slight decrease in uptake capacity from 32.71 mg g−1 for the 1st cycle to 30.52 mg g−1 for the 5th cycle was reported. The overall adsorption study confirmed the efficacy of TW and CNS in removing Acid Green 25 from wastewater.