Carrier Bags Research Articles

Leading the charge? Payments for single use carrier bags in Wales

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Animal, Vegetable, or Mineral? Nordic Ecocritical Approaches to Children’s Texts

Animal, Vegetable, or Mineral? Nordic Ecocritical Approaches to Children’s Texts Catherine Olver (bio) Goga, Nina, Lykke Guanio-Uluru, Bjørg Oddrun Hallås, Aslaug Nyrnes, editors. Ecocritical Perspectives on Children’s Texts and Cultures: Nordic Dialogues. Palgrave, 2018. 299 pp. $119.99 pb. ISBN 9783319904979. Critical Approaches to Children’s Literature. Ecocritical Perspectives on Children’s Texts and Cultures revisits the connections between cultural constructions of “nature” and “child.” The collection asks to what extent texts use traditional tropes “to place the child in an idyllic and romantic relation to nature” (6) and whether they reflect and engage with contemporary environmental challenges. Along with the expected analyses of picture books and novels, Nina Goga, Lykke Guanio-Uluru, Bjørg Oddrun Hallås, and Aslaug Nyrnes’s collection features a chapter on picture-book apps and another on a television series, as well as a pleasing amount of attention to illustrated poetry from several traditions. It focuses on contemporary Nordic texts but also includes chapters on Ted Hughes, Catalan poetry, The Rabbits by John Marsden and Shaun Tan, and novels by Mordicai Gerstein, Philip Pullman, and David Almond. The reference to “cultures” in the title acknowledges the specificity of cultural links between nature and the child, such as the Nordic emphasis on children’s nature competence, while highlighting the need to compare different cultural concepts of nature if humanities scholars wish to facilitate international co-operation on environmental issues. Most chapters are written by scholars associated with the research group “Nature in Children’s Literature: Landscapes and Beings—Fostering Ecocitizens,” led by Nina Goga and based at the Western Norway University of Applied Sciences. This edited collection makes the group’s productive discussions available to the wider community of ecocritics and scholars working in young people’s texts and cultures. The volume is [End Page 215] usefully organized into sections on “Ethics and Aesthetics,” “Landscape,” “Vegetal,” “Animal,” and “Human.” Marianne Røskeland opens the section on “Ethics and Aesthetics” by tackling the dilemma that, on the one hand, the desire to master nature is a cause of our environmental problems, and on the other, that “[m]astering one’s surroundings is also central in any child’s development . . .” (28). Her reading of the Norwegian picture book Sånt Som Er (Things That Are) details how the book challenges the reader’s anthropocentric process of categorizing objects; Røskeland brings Wolfgang Iser’s “gaps” and “negation of expectations” (138) to bear on James J. Gibson’s “affordances” (119) through her argument that a child reader perceives possible ways of using natural objects depicted in the book according to their own personal interests and physical limitations. The root meaning of “aesthetics,” relating to perception, arises again in chapter 3 as Gunnar Karlsen considers what it means to appreciate nature aesthetically and why it matters for the development of ecocitizens. He argues for a moderate cognitive view which combines some knowledge of the natural world with the multisensory experience of being in it—though when reading, emotional responses matter more than multisensory experiences for readers to develop moral skills. Nina Goga’s chapter demonstrates how the aesthetics of the novel Ishavspirater (The Ice Sea Pirates) and its environmental ethics are bound together in plot and character development. She extends Ursula K. Le Guin’s “Carrier Bag Theory of Fiction” to propose that the protagonist of The Ice Sea Pirates is “a hero collector; one who collects and gathers experiences through her travels and encounters . . .” (60), moving from inherited knowledge about interspecies ethics to the understanding that comes from experience. In the second section on “Landscape,” Aslaug Nyrnes and Ahmed Khateeb each return to Rousseau, partnering Émile with the contemporary texts Tonje Glimmerdal (Astrid the Unstoppable) by Maria Parr and Stian Hole’s Garmann Trilogy. Both chapters explore contemporary children’s growth in pastoral landscapes using Terry Gifford’s concept of the “post-pastoral,” which “successfully suggests a collapse of the human/nature divide while being aware of the problematics involved” (26). Kristin Ørjasæter continues the investigation of post-pastoral and anti-pastoral landscapes by jumping into the jungles of Svart elfenben [End Page 216] (Black Ivory) and Skriket fra jungelen: En filmroman...

Collection of Anthropogenic Litter from the Shores of Lake Malawi: Characterization of Plastic Debris and the Implications of Public Involvement in the African Great Lakes.

Anthropogenic debris is an environmental problem that affects beaches and coastlines worldwide. The abundance of beach debris is often documented with the use of public volunteers. To date, such community participations have been largely confined to the marine environment, but the presence and impact of anthropogenic debris on freshwater shorelines has been increasingly recognized. Our study presents the first such information from the African Great Lakes, specifically Lake Malawi. A total of 490,064 items of anthropogenic litter were collected by over 2000 volunteers in a clean-up campaign that took place annually between 2015 and 2018. Approximately 80% of the anthropogenic debris was comprised of plastic litter, with plastic carrier bags being the most common item. The dominance of plastic litter, and in particular the presence of plastic bags, which have subjected to bans in some African countries, is discussed. The broader implications of citizen science in the African Great Lakes area is also discussed.

Imaging an Assisted Evolution: The Environmental Futurity of Zanele Muholi’s Somnyama Ngonyama

ABSTRACT As the effects of climate change are felt with increasing violence along its multifarious front lines in the Global South, the futures of human and non-human life on the state-demarcated peripheral are cancelled out by both naturalising Euro-American discourse and the disavowal of what has been termed “climate colonialism”. Speculatively thinking with two photographs from South African visual activist Zanele Muholi’s series Somnyama Ngonyama (2012–ongoing), the article explores the theoretical landscape of the “anthropocene” through the prism of creative and academic work by Black, queer and indigenous practitioners whose works resists its homogenising narrative. Utilising bell hooks’ notion of the “oppositional gaze” and Ursula K. Le Guin’s Carrier Bag Theory of Fiction, the article reflects on how Muholi’s seemingly exposing photography in turn exposes the depoliticisation of ecological neocolonialism. The science-fictional and resistant practices of the artist reimagine the agential capacity of queer Black bodies in relation to environmentally changed futures.

South Sudans ban of plastic carrier bags: An empirical move or an emulation?

South Sudan banned the use of plastic carrier bags in December 2015 following a similar injunction by its neighbour, Kenya. Using the textual analysis technique, this paper argues that the ban of plastic carrier bags was a rational action. However, there is limited evidence that such a decision was based upon any research findings, which may have negative implications on policy implementation and enforcement.

Letter to the editor regarding the article “Evaluation of the phytotoxicity of conventional and biodegradable plastic bags using seed germination tests“ by Balestri et al., published on Ecological Indicators 102(2019):569–580

Abstract According to Balestri et al. (2019) plastic carrier bags (both conventional and compostable) do release into water intentionally added chemicals, such as the noxious bisphenol A, and other phytotoxic substances probably generated during bag manufacturing. The bag leachates can adversely affect seedling growth and thus be potentially toxic to higher plants. According to the authors these findings are of particular ecological and managerial relevance. However, this article is affected by problems of inconsistency between the presentation of results, discussion, and content and sometimes communication is misleading.

Looking beyond the banning of lightweight bags: analysing the role of plastic (and fuel) impacts in waste collection at a Portuguese city.

The purpose of this work is to assess the environmental impacts of the collection of mixed municipal solid waste (MSW) in a selected neighbourhood of the Portuguese city of Aveiro. To this purpose, the main elements necessary for the collection process (carrier bags, dustbins, street containers and vehicles) were analysed applying the life cycle assessment methodology, making use of locally gathered data. The main impacts associated with this activity are mostly related to the use of polyethylene plastic bags to carry the waste from the household to the waste container, and to the fuel consumption of collection vehicle that picks MSW from street containers and transports it to the treatment facility. The impacts associated with the plastic bags were primarily due to their disposal in a sanitary landfill after use and secondarily to the consumption of fossil raw materials required for their production. Given the relative high impact of the plastic bags, alternative scenarios were tested: using bags entirely produced with recycled polyethylene and bags produced with bio-based plastics derived from starch (TPS) and from wastewater (PHA). PHA bio-based bags were found to perform slightly better than conventional high-density polyethylene (HDPE) bags, but HDPE bags with 100% recycled content remained as the environmentally best option. A sensitivity analysis was performed to check the influence of bag size. Regarding the fuel consumption by collection vehicles, a comparison was performed to check how site-specific conditions can influence the impact of this activity, resulting in remarkably higher consumptions when local data were used instead of reference databases.

Life cycle assessment of carrier bags and development of a littering indicator

Increased plastic consumption has resulted in high amounts of plastic waste ending up in the environment. Recently, the European Commission (EC) has identified a list of single-use plastics, including plastic bags, most commonly found in the European beaches. As a response, alternatives for plastic carrier bags have been more of a concern. Many life cycle assessment (LCA) studies have been performed to evaluate the environmental profile of different carrier bags; however, without considering the possibility of contribution to the littering problem. Therefore, in this study, an indicator has been introduced, based on an LCA study of carrier bags which was performed in Spain. The indicator is influenced by parameters such as: number of bags to fulfill the functional unit, weight, surface, fee, and biodegradability. In this paper, a comparative LCA of HDPE, LDPE, PP, paper and biodegradable plastic bags is presented. Following that, a littering indicator is introduced to allow a comparison of the risk of littering of the different carrier bags in marine environment. The results given by the Littering Potential indicator rank the bags oppositely to the results given by the LCA as usual. Further research is needed to refine the model and include additional contributing variables.

Environmental Deterioration of Biodegradable, Oxo-biodegradable, Compostable, and Conventional Plastic Carrier Bags in the Sea, Soil, and Open-Air Over a 3-Year Period.

There is clear evidence that discarded single-use carrier bags are accumulating in the environment. As a result, various plastic formulations have been developed which state they deteriorate faster and/or have fewer impacts on the environment because their persistence is shorter. This study examined biodegradable, oxo-biodegradable, compostable, and high-density polyethylene (i.e., a conventional plastic carrier bag) materials over a 3 year period. These materials were exposed in three natural environments; open-air, buried in soil, and submersed in seawater, as well as in controlled laboratory conditions. In the marine environment, the compostable bag completely disappeared within 3 months. However, the same compostable bag type was still present in the soil environment after 27 months but could no longer hold weight without tearing. After 9 months exposure in the open-air, all bag materials had disintegrated into fragments. Collectively, our results showed that none of the bags could be relied upon to show any substantial deterioration over a 3 year period in all of the environments. It is therefore not clear that the oxo-biodegradable or biodegradable formulations provide sufficiently advanced rates of deterioration to be advantageous in the context of reducing marine litter, compared to conventional bags.

A neglected fish stressor: mechanical disturbance during transportation impacts susceptibility to disease in a globally important ornamental fish.

The transport of fish in aquaculture and the ornamental trade exposes fish to multiple stressors that can cause mass mortalities and economic loss. Previous research on fish transport has largely focussed on chemical stress related to deterioration in water quality. However, mechanical disturbance during routine fish transport is unpredictable and is a neglected potential stressor when studying fish welfare. Stress-induced immunosuppression caused by mechanical disturbance can increase the chances of contracting infections and can significantly increase infection burden. Here, using a model host-parasite system (guppy Poecilia reticulata and the monogenean ectoparasite Gyrodactylus turnbulli) and a new method of bagging fish (Breathing Bags™), which reduces mechanical disturbance during fish transport, we investigated how parasite infections contracted after simulated transport impact infection trajectories on a globally important ornamental freshwater species. Guppies exposed to mechanical transport disturbance suffered significantly higher parasite burden compared to fish that did not experience transport disturbance. Unfortunately, there was no significant reduction in parasite burden of fish transported in the Breathing Bags™ compared to standard polythene carrier bags. Thus, transport-induced mechanical disturbance, hitherto neglected as a stressor, can be detrimental to disease resistance and highlights the need for specific management procedures to reduce the impact of infectious diseases following routine fish transport.

From trash to treasure – turning plastic waste into biodegradable polymers using bacteria

Mountains of plastic waste consisting of carrier bags and medical packaging are buried in landfill sites dumped in rivers around the world annually. Unfortunately plastics generated by the petrochemical industry are not biodegradable and therefore accumulate in the environment at a rate of over 25 million tones year-1. Therefore there is a huge demand for biodegradable plastics. Polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) are problematic materials, used for appliance housings, disposable cutlery and general packaging. This study investigates the utilisation of waste PS, PE and PP as a potential additional carbon sources using bacteria to synthesise polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs); a value-added material, able to replace some conventional fossil-fuel plastics while being non-toxic, fully biodegradable and biocompatible. Prodegraded waste PS and PP, and thermally treated PEwere used as supplementary carbon sources totryptone soya broth (TSB and BSM) for 48 h fermentations [1, 2, 3]. The bacterial strain Cupriavidus necator H16 was selected as it is non-pathogenic, genetically stable, robust and one of the best natural producers of PHA. The accumulation of PHAs varied from 17 % (wt / wt) of dry biomass in TSB controls to 39–66 % for PS, PE and PP thermally treated samples. The polymers obtained were analysed with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) to characterise their chemical structure. In conclusion, certain thermal treatment protocols of the waste plastics were shown to be viable for PHA production; with3-hydroxybutyrate and up to 12 mol% of 3-hydroxyvalerate and 3-hydroxyhexanoate co-monomeric units formed.

Need a bag? A review of public policies on plastic carrier bags – Where, how and to what effect?

The plastic carrier bag epitomises many of the features that have transformed plastics into a material that defines our contemporary modern culture. The versatility, durability, strength and low cost have made it into an indispensable companion for consumers. In parallel with plastic becoming an increasingly contested material, the plastic carrier bag has emerged as a controversial object in many jurisdictions. This paper explores where, how and to what extent public authorities in different cases across the globe regulate plastic carrier bags. The number of public policies on plastic carrier bags has more than tripled since 2010, and they are now found on all continents, ranging from the municipal to the intergovernmental level. They mainly come in the form of either bans or levies, with the former being predominant. There have been many examples of policies leading to reduced consumption of plastic carrier bags, however this paper also identifies key challenges, including resistance towards plastic carrier bag regulations, uncertainty in measuring the effects, and the undesired side-effects. Far from being a simple issue, public policies on plastic carrier bags highlight the complexity of governing plastics.

The Commitment of Packaging Industry in the Framework of the European Strategy for Plastics in a Circular Economy

European Commission is strongly committed into issues related to plastic materials production and plastic waste management. While the Circular Economy Package has set targets generally referred to recycling rates, the European Strategy for plastics in a circular economy (and related action plan), fosters sustainability along the entire plastic value chain: from primary producers to converters, brand owners and retailers to waste collectors and recyclers. The Directive on the reduction of the impact of certain plastic products on the environment (more commonly known as Directive on Single-Use-Plastics, waiting for publication in the Official Journal of the European Union) rules targets on ten plastic products most often found as littering on global beaches, directly affecting plastic industry and, consequently, market. Policy makers and industrial stakeholders are called upon to collaborate. The article aims to illustrate interactions between European Commission and all plastic value chain stakeholders on implementing measures to reach ambitious targets pursued by the recent European policy. The study shows how European Commission has robustly worked to regulate production and consumption patterns on plastic carrier bags and packaging (including food packaging) thus facilitating the achievement of specific targets provided by the recent Directive. However, additional provisions concerning market restriction have been introduced; industrial stakeholders carried on a prompt response by promoting the creation of alliances, join venture and association, as well as a more integrated plastic value chain. On the base of this purpose, a virtuous example of a closed supply chain is presented.

Are retailers “bagging” the carrier bag levy in England? An exploratory enquiry

This paper examines the business impact of the legislation in England requiring retailers to charge consumers for single-use carrier bags. The legislation impacts three key stakeholders – Government, retailers, and consumers. The primary focus of this study is, however, from the perspective of retailers and how this group of stakeholders may have benefitted from the charge. Retailers are using the collected revenues to promote their image in the marketplace and presenting themselves as corporate social responsible entities. For retailers, the charge provides an avenue for bolstering their carbon footprint as consumers are expected to reuse their plastic bags – i.e. the “bag for life” as they now have to pay for them. At the same time, the proceeds are helping some retailers to top up their coffers which to some extent implies that there is some misuse or abuse of the policy by retailers.

Slow degradation of compostable plastic carrier bags in a stream and its riparian area

There is no place on Earth where plastic debris could not be found. Impacts of plastics on aesthetics, biota and ecosystems are dependent on how long plastic items last, and what degradation products are released, in recipient environments. As bio-based plastics tend to replace petroleum-based plastics in everyday life, it is important to upgrade knowledge on the degradation of new polymers in natural environments. Single-use plastic carrier bags are nowadays made of bio-plastics certified as biodegradable and compostable. It is unclear, however, whether claims of biodegradability and compostability can be taken as evidence of rapid degradation of plastic bags outside recycling/composting facilities. This study sought to provide quantified information about the degradation of compostable plastic carrier bags in streams and riparian zones. We found that plastic samples enclosed in different types of mesh bags lost weight at extremely slow rates, albeit significant when submerged in a stream. 95% of initial plastic mass remained after 77 days spent in water whereas alder leaf litter allowed to decompose under the same condition had completely disappeared before the end of the study. Determination of respiration rate and invertebrate abundance in plastic samples showed a greater decomposer activity in the stream than in the riparian environment. However, biotically-mediated degradation by decomposers was probably overridden by dissolution processes in mediating plastic mass loss. Our findings suggest that mismanaged plastic carrier bags could impact recipient ecosystems even when they are claimed as biodegradable or compostable.

Gilles Deleuze and Donna Haraway on Fabulating the Earth

Inspired by Ursula Le Guin's ‘The Carrier Bag Theory of Fiction’, contemporary feminist writing in the social sciences and the humanities has been characterised by a strong renewal of interest in storytelling, as is evidenced by the works of Anna Tsing and Donna Haraway among others. How can storytelling grow with and beyond its literary origin to become a political and heuristic tool? And how does the Anthropocene – our specific geologic epoch – require the renewal of the means of expression of such an old tool as storytelling, so that it becomes a human and nonhuman process? To answer those questions, Deleuze's and Haraway's takes on ‘fabulation’ are intermingled along three lines: the part played by storytelling in the construction of earthly knowledges, the imbrication of speculation and politics, and the nonhuman dimension of fabulation that allows for the liberation of forces of life repressed by an anthropocentric approach.

Extraction and processing of Bast fibres from Ficus glomerata- A new source for non- conventional fibres

The increasing global preference towards the natural products rather than synthetic products has increased the attraction of tourists to the local markets. Ficus glomerata fibres is one of the suitable source as raw material for making natural products like carrier bags, baskets, belts and some handicraft items. Fibres from F. glomerata stems were extracted by using water retting method. After retting, the fibres were scoured using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) for making them suitable to form the different produucts from the processed fibres such as yarn, nonwoven, woven and knitted fabrics. Scouring conditions such as chemical concentration and processing time were evaluated on the basis of physical properties of fibres such as tenacity, elongation and fineness. The optimization results obtained from testing of physical properties of fibres shows that, the 3% concentration of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and 60 minutes processing time was found promising for the treatment of fibres. The improvement in F. glomerata fibres through proper processing can yield value added fibres and thus can enhance the potential utility of these fibres in diversified sectors. So, the F. glomaerata fibres has a potential to provide an important role in making space for natural fibre products in the outside market.

Designing Business Solutions for Plastic Waste Management to Enhance Circular Transitions in Kenya

Least-developed countries face many challenges regarding their plastic waste management systems. In 2017, Kenya imposed a selective ban targeting manufacturers and consumers of plastic carrier bags. However, this selectivity does not avoid the continuous use of other plastic products. The present paper states that circular priorities, which have been defined to advanced economies, would not be entirely valid for the rest of the world. While high-income countries face only the impacts of their own consumption, developing nations must endure the externalities of these developed economies. Thus, the focus of the least developed part of the world must not be on reducing its relatively normal (or even low) consumption, but to manage its surplus material flow. According to the employed circular evaluation methodology (CEV—Circular Economic Value), the circularity level in Kenya’s plastic material flow stands on a rather low stage with 32.72%. This result outlines the linear deficiencies of the plastic waste management system and urges the prevention of further material leakage (such as energy use). Through the Business Model Canvas (BMC) approach this study offers a holistic business solution which can improve the system’s sustainability.

Biodegradability standards for carrier bags and plastic films in aquatic environments: a critical review.

Plastic litter is encountered in aquatic ecosystems across the globe, including polar environments and the deep sea. To mitigate the adverse societal and ecological impacts of this waste, there has been debate on whether ‘biodegradable' materials should be granted exemptions from plastic bag bans and levies. However, great care must be exercised when attempting to define this term, due to the broad and complex range of physical and chemical conditions encountered within natural ecosystems. Here, we review existing international industry standards and regional test methods for evaluating the biodegradability of plastics within aquatic environments (wastewater, unmanaged freshwater and marine habitats). We argue that current standards and test methods are insufficient in their ability to realistically predict the biodegradability of carrier bags in these environments, due to several shortcomings in experimental procedures and a paucity of information in the scientific literature. Moreover, existing biodegradability standards and test methods for aquatic environments do not involve toxicity testing or account for the potentially adverse ecological impacts of carrier bags, plastic additives, polymer degradation products or small (microscopic) plastic particles that can arise via fragmentation. Successfully addressing these knowledge gaps is a key requirement for developing new biodegradability standard(s) for lightweight carrier bags.

A Carrier Bag Story of (waste) food, hens and the sharing economy

The relationship between food and mobilities is so fundamental that it is easily overlooked, but when you think about it, it is remarkable that cities get fed at all. Food is being produced, transported, bought, stored, sold, cooked, eaten, enjoyed, disposed of and sent into and through bodies, ecologies and different waste, recycling and/or upcycling systems. Within these disposal systems, valuable resources are being lost. Based on empirical work from a Danish project called Sharing City and a local small-scale organic farm (named Hegnsholt), this article elaborates upon how particular waste food from restaurants is a valuable resource for the farm’s hens, which, as a result, are so flavoursome that well-known restaurants and cafés purchase their eggs and chickens. This analysis seeks to contribute to discussions on how we are able to respond to environmental change and inspire reparative futures by showing the collaborative, compassionate, responsible qualities of the sharing economy of the exchange of waste food. With the help from The Carrier Bag Theory – an alternative, feminist narrative – and the mobilities paradigm, this article shows the transformative gestures of ethical flavourful food and the value of waste food. This argument is unfolded by looking deeper into the farm as a heterogeneous relational-material entanglement of infrastructures, non-human and human, Nordic food stories, waste, food and feed, diseases and risks and eating and tasting. Based on the food network, this article ought to inspire us to rethink how to share this planet with earth-others.