Cardamom Production Research Articles

The effect of rainfall on cardamom production in bhutan

Large cardamom is one of the largest value potential perennial cash crop of Bhutan just second to the cordyceps. It usually grows up to the height of 2.5 meter especially between 700-1800m asl. It requires good amount of shade and grows well especially in the southern region of Bhutan. Although there are many factors that would account for the production of cardamom such as orientation of the site, density of shade, elevation of the site, climate and temperature etc. Water also plays a vital role in the overall quality and the yield of the cardamom, but if there is excess of water it deteriorates its yield and overall production. Having excess water in the soil mass tends to rot the roots and the lower steam of the plant and eventually making it vulnerable to fungus pest and diseases, thus lowering the yield. Therefore, an optimum amount of water is required for maximum production of cardamom. The yield is proportional to the water content up to certain limit, then the yield decreases with the increase of water content. This investigation also shows the gradient of the cultivated land contributes in the production of Cardamom.

THE CHALLENGES IN RE-ORIENTING KERALA CARDAMOM FARMING EXPERTISE TO AUGMENT CARDAMOM MERCHANDISING POTENTIALS THROUGH GLOBAL MARKET RE-POSITIONING AND PATENT-BRANDING

The Challenges in Re-Orienting Kerala Cardamom Farming Expertise to Augment Cardamom Merchandising Potentials Through Global Market Re-Positioning and Patent-Branding Abstract: The aromatic Queen of Spices, Cardamom (Elleteria cardmomum ) has had historical significance as a priceless merchandise for which the once famous Spices Route to then Indian peninsula was discovered .The geographical , physiographic and climatic peculiarities of the South Deccan of the Western Ghats region of present South India are the major gifts of nature still providing us an upper hand in production of cardamom with superlative aromatic and medicinal properties. The fundamental aim of this study is to probe into facts and factors connected with the untapped scope of present system of cardamom agriculture conducted as traditionally or in a more planned way nowadays along with its unpredictable fluctuations in demand -supply equations and realised market price to be oriented and geared towards the export markets so that earnings per each farmer are substantially increased. This also brings up the immense scope and relevance of modern marketing imperatives of unique export market positioning, branding and more creative packing in smaller units branding as Indian Cardamom or even the famous Alleppy Green”. As marketing is succinctly defined as creation and delivering a new standard of living , there must necessarily be a series of concerted awareness creation campaigns in at least the top 10 cardamom importing nations like the affluent Western nations , Australian continental belt including the transit station of Singapore and those rich Middle East nations .There also exist the scope of re-interpreting and , in a way, redefining the market positioning of Cardamom different from the present status as an agricultural commodity, rather than as the Queen of Spices, based on its superior qualities of aroma and taste, particularly the flavour which is determined by the spice oil content and the hitherto unexploited nutritional properties and of mouth freshening, as vitamins supplement and curative values which had been proven over the centuries. Also it needs extensive help and advice from the Spices Board in promoting and protecting the interests of the Cardamom industry and the growers for Market Re-Positioning and Patent-Branding.

Establishment of a rapid screening method for drought tolerance of small cardamom by using polyethylene glycol-6000

Small cardamom is a premier spices crop of India. Drought is the chief abiotic stress causing up to 50-80% crop loss in small cardamom. Lack of accurate screening techniques is a limiting factor to develop small cardamom cultivars tolerant to drought, which is the most important constraint in small cardamom productivity. In order to optimize the osmotic stress induced by different concentrations of PEG-6000 for moisture stress tolerance screening in small cardamom, a laboratory experiment was conducted in a factorial randomized complete design with four replications. Four different concentrations of PEG-6000 (5, 10, 15 and 20 per cent) along with a control were used in small cardamom cv. Appangala-1. PEG-6000 concentration above 15% has reduced per cent seedling survival almost by 50%. However, at 15% PEG-6000, a significant increase in proline, phenolic content and scavenging enzyme activity and decreased chlorophyll fluorescence were recorded. Hence, 15% PEG-6000 appears to be an ideal concentration for screening of small cardamom genotypes for moisture stress tolerance.

Value chain analysis of Large Cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxburg) in Bhojpur, Nepal

Large Cardamom is a high value spice crop having substantial export potential. The study was conducted on Feb-May, 2019 in Arun rural municipality, Bhojpur municipality and Sadananda municipality with an objective to analyze existing value chain of Large Cardamom in Bhojpur district of Nepal. In total, 150 Large Cardamom growers were selected using purposive sampling technique. In addition to that, 17 traders from the Bhojpur, Khadbari and Birtamod were also selected for the study. Findings showed that farmers were interested in Large Cardamom industry due to good return and high profit margin per unit of commodity. The benefit-cost ratio was found higher in Arun village municipality (1.735), followed by Sadananda municipality (1.467) and Bhojpur municipality (1.263). Increasing disease and pest attack and low seasonal price are the major problem in production and marketing of Large Cardamom respectively. Harvested capsules of Large Cardamom were dried using traditional drier (bhatti) that make the dried capsules prone to quality degradation. Value addition practices such as grading, tail cutting were found poor in farmer level. Producer’s share and marketing efficiency were found highest when farmers sell their product directly to exporter and lowest in domestic market channel. Demand and supply of Large Cardamom in Indian market was most determining factor for price fixation of Nepalese Large Cardamom. Thus from the study it is recommended to improve production process through appropriate mechanization, along with possible efforts in identification of potential international markets and possible ways for direct export to third countries which could help farmers to receive higher price.

Integrating value-chain approach with participatory multi-criteria analysis for sustainable planning of a niche crop in Indian Himalayas

The value-chain approach (VCA) was used for exploring how a niche crop, namely large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.), can be developed sustainably to increase incomes and enhance rural livelihoods in the mountains. Large cardamom is a high-value, agro-climatically suitable, and non-perishable spice crop grown in the Himalayan region. Originating in Sikkim, the crop is important to the local economy and is sold in both domestic and international markets; however, its production in India has been declining significantly in recent years. Using VCA and participatory methods of data collection the study helped elicit value chain actors’ perspectives on various reasons for the decline as well as potential strategies to improve the cardamom value chain. The results present the multiple environmental and climatic (e.g. water stress), social (e.g. women participation) and institutional (e.g. lack of trust between actors) challenges and corresponding upgrading strategies. Through participatory multi-criteria analysis (MCA), the strategies were prioritized based on the overall preferences of multiple stakeholders. The analysis considered eight criteria and 25 options, or strategies, and found that that marketability and profitability were the most important criteria, and increasing cardamom production, the most important option trait. Stakeholder discussions along with sensitivity analysis also showed how these options could be implemented and revealed how criteria preferences can change with expert inputs. This combination of VCA and MCA, because it supports participatory decision-making and balances multiple dimensions of sustainable development, can be effectively deployed in planning for agricultural development in the mountains.

Integrating Modelling and Expert Knowledge for Evaluating Current and Future Scenario of Large Cardamom Crop in Eastern Nepal

Large Cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.) is one of the most valuable cash crop of the Himalayan mountain region including Nepal, India, and Bhutan. Nepal is the world’s largest producer of the crop while the Taplejung district contributes a 30%–40% share in Nepal’s total production. Large cardamom is an herbaceous perennial crop usually grown under the shade of the Uttis tree in very specialized bioclimatic conditions. In recent years, a decline in cardamom production has been observed which is being attributed to climate-related indicators. To understand the current dynamics of this under-canopy herbaceous crop distribution and its future potential under climate change, a combination of modelling, remote sensing, and expert knowledge is applied for the assessment. The results suggest that currently, Uttis tree cover is 10,735 ha in the district, while 50% (5198 ha) of this cover has a large cardamom crop underneath. When existing cultivation is compared with modelled suitable areas, it is observed that the cultivatable area has not yet reached its full potential. In a future climate scenario, the current habitat will be negatively affected, where mid elevations will remain stable while lower and higher elevation will become infeasible for the crop. Future changes are closely related to temperature and precipitation which are steadily changing in Nepal over time.

A review on status and profitability of large cardamom production in Nepal

Purpose: This study focuses on the status, strength and problems of large cardamom cultivation in Nepal and also identify profitability of large cardamom farming in Nepal.
 Research Methodology: Numbers of journal articles and reports were consulted as secondary source of data and conclusion were drawn and summarized.
 Results: Area and production of large caradamom in Nepal is increasing day by day and major production is concentrated in four eastern districts . B/C ratio of cardamom production varies from 1.70 to 3.06 and one fifth of household income in eastern hill of Nepal is attributed by Large cardamom. Price fluctuation, middleman and diseases are identified as major problems.
 Limitation: Lack of funding, less access to the data and documents are the limitations of study.
 Keywords: Status, B/C ratio, Profitability, Price fluctuation, Middleman
 How to Cite: Acharya, Mohan. (2019). A review on status and profitability of large cardamom production in Nepal. International Journal of Financial, Accounting, and Management, 1(1), 17-22.

Import and Export of Small Cardamom in India

Indian Small Cardamom is famous in the world over decades for its’ quality, colour and standards. However, India imports Cardamom from other countries for various reasons such as high price in the domestic market, bulk seasonal and festival demand for Cardamom from North India. Countries like Guatemala with a wide area of plantations with naturally conducive weather and climate paves the way for mass production of Cardamom at a lower cost. This has resulted in the mixing of those lesser quality cardamoms with higher quality Cardamom produce in India. Moreover, there are many illegal routes with which Guatemala Cardamom is smuggled into India. Export of Cardamom has several formalities and procedures to be followed. The State and Central Government have regulated the import and export of cardamom to various countries in the world. There are several distributing channels of Cardamom with auction centres, wholesaler, retailer and other intermediaries through which the Cardamom reaches the customers in India and abroad. The international market for Indian Cardamom is competitive as more countries try to dump their product. But there is ample scope for Indian Cardamom to rule in the Global Market.

A Review on Status of Production of Large Cardamom in Nepal and its Marketing in National and Global Scenario

Abstract The study mainly focuses on the status of production and marketing of large cardamom in Nepal and also compares these dimensions in the context of different countries. For the study mainly secondary data were collected from research articles, reports, publications and news articles. Large cardamom is the third most expensive crop and one of the major cash crops of Nepal. Nepal is the largest producer of large cardamom in the world followed by India and Bhutan. Taplejung, Sankhuwasabha, Panchthar and Illam are the four major districts that contribute more than 80% of the national production. Cardamom produced in Nepal is graded according to tail cutting after drying and packed in jute bag or plastic to export it to foreign countries. Nepal exports almost 90 percentage of its total cardamom production to India. In the global scenario, Guatemala is the largest exporter of cardamom (small and large combined) followed by India, Nepal, Singapore and Indonesia respectievly. It was found that the production of cardamom is declining in Nepal due to price fluctuation and viral diseases such as Chirkey, Furkey. Problem such as absence of unique HS code for large cardamom and ‘duplicate large cardamom’ are also seen in the market.

Large cardamom production scenario in mountainaeous region of West Bengal: Constraints, issues and strategies

Large cardamom production scenario in mountainaeous region of West Bengal: Constraints, issues and strategies

Profitability of large cardamom enterprise in Nepal?: Evidence from financial analysis

Large Cardamom is major exportable commodities prioritized by Ministry of Commerce and Supply in Nepal. However, no study has been reported for its financial analysis in the country. In this context, this study was designed and conducted in Ilam, Panchthar, and Taplejung to assess the profitability and financial viability of cardamom production. Primary data needed for the study were collected using structured survey schedule with 30 randomly selected cardamom growers from each selected district in May-July 2017. Primary information mainly compose information on investment cost, operating cost and revenue. Three Focus Group Discussions were also carried out in each district for triangulation of collected information. The secondary data were used for the Compound Annual Growth Analysis and financial analysis. The economic yield starts from the fourth year and remains similar up to 20 years. But, it was found from the study that with the proper management of the crop cultivation packages, about 10% yield starts from third year which have not been reported yet. The financial analysis result showed that, the Return on Investment was found about 160% with payback period of 4.09 years. Similarly, Net Present Value was assessed at NRs. 3,545,771 at 12% discount rate. Likewise, the Internal Rate of Return Benefit-Cost Ratio of cardamom production was 82.6% and 3.06, respectively. The sensitivity analysis with 20% increase in the cost of production and 20% decrease in the sold price rate also found profitable and viable enterprises as its Return on Investment is 34%, PBP is 5.64 years, NPV equals NRs. 2,154,393, IRR 57.6% and BCR found 2.06. Hence, the study recommends that this enterprise is very profitable and viable and farmer could invest confidently even its rate fluctuates very often.

Cardamom production in Kavrepalanchowk

Cardamom production is a potential cash crop of Kavre district. Many farmers were found to grow cardamom following traditional pattern. Women's participation in Cardamom production in Kavre is satisfactory and their roles are vital in the farm and market management. To check the status of cardamom production and women's role in Kavre, the researcher visited the District Agriculture Office and used snowball sampling technique to collect the primary data. For the secondary data, library method has been applied. Although the production and women's participation are highly encouraging, the farmers are reluctant to invest and produce cardamom at large scale. The study has found that the farmers need the entrepreneurship training, support and empowerment for mass production of cardamom. The future of cardamom production is bright in Kavre.Research Nepal Journal of Development Studies Vol.1(1) 2018 58-65

Marketing and Socioeconomics Aspects of Large Cardamom Production in Tehrathum, Nepal

A survey was conducted in November 2015 in one of the pocket area of large cardamom production in Teharthum District, eastern Nepal with aim to investigate the status of cardamom enterprises. The parameters used were cardamom production area, type of manure used, drying facilities, technical skills of farmers, market channels and variable cost etc. We purposively selected 30 cardamom producers and stakeholders for interview pre-designed questionnaires. The result showed that average area, production and productivity of large cardamom per household were 0.86 ha, 200 kg and 232 kg.ha-1, respectively, with the average farming experience of 22 years. It was revealed that 13% farmers used farmyard organic manure, the use of 1.5 kg/plant farmyard manure might produce 28.5% higher yield cardamom compared to without using any manure or fertilizers. It was also revealed among the responded only 7% had received improved drying machine from District Agriculture Development Office (DADO) at 50% subsidy, while only 23% of farmers received training and technical services from DADO. The study showed that per hectare average total cost of large cardamom production, selling price and gross revenue were NRs. 2,36,705 ($2255), NRs. 5,50,305 ($5240) and NRs. 3,13,600 ($2985), respectively, with benefit/cost (B/C) ratio of 2 after the completion of gestation period of 4 years. Our survey showed that predominant marketing approach was by direct sell to the traders located at district headquarter. The productivity of large cardamom was influenced by various factors, such as nearly 75.2% of the variation in productivity was explained by the number of active family members, farming period, area, intercultural operations, variable cost and depreciated fixed cost.

Pesticide Use in Indian Cardamom Needs Change in Cultivation Practices

Indian cardamom farming in the Cardamom Hill Reserves of Kerala has been considered one of the costliest production systems. Questionnaire survey and interviews with cardamom planters between 2008 and 2013 showed that the pesticides used in cardamom production is paradoxical. The reasons are closely associated with the unscrupulous use of pesticides which wiped out the natural enemies of pests and inefficacies of pesticides that led to dose enhancement. Climatic changes along with forest degradation and removal of shade have played a considerable role for increased pesticide consumption. The current perilous situation needs critical thinking to evolve pesticide reduction strategies.

THE QUEEN OF SPICES AND AYURVEDA: A BRIEF REVIEW

Small cardamom, well known as the ‘queen of spices’, belongs to the family Zingiberaceae, order Scitaminae is a rich spice obtained from the seeds of a perennial plant, Elettaria cardamomum Maton., in Ayurveda which is known as “ela”. Ela is known for its medicinal value from ancient times. It had also been mentioned in Greek, Egyptian and Christian scripts. In India, cardamom production is mainly concentrated in the high ranges of Idukki district, Kerala state and certain pockets of the states of Karnataka and Tamilnadu. Cardamom possesses katu (pungent) rasa (taste) as it`s main rasa followed by madhura (sweet) anurasa (taste followed by main taste). Ela pacifies all the three dosha`s i.e. vata, pitta and kapha. Cardamom owes it`s aroma due to presence of volatile oil in its seeds and capsule. Cardamom is used from ancient times with betel leaves for chewing purpose due to it`s mouth purifier property. Seeds are aromatic, cooling, stimulant, carminative, digestive, stomachic, diuretic, cardiotonic, alexiteric, and expectorant. They are useful in anorexia, dyspepsia, asthma, bronchitis, dysuria, renal and vesicle calculi, halitosis, cardiac disorders, hyperdipsia, burning sensation, debility and defects of vision. In Ayurveda, Ela is used for the treatment of various diseases. Cardamom is used in a number of classical Ayurvedic medicines like eladi vati and sitopaladi churna. Badi elaichi (Amomum subualatum Roxb.), in its action and properties, is in many ways different from that of cardamom. This article aims at reviewing detailed Ayurveda and modern perspective of Ela i.e. choti elaichi (Elettaria cardamomum Maton.)

Identification, distribution and temporal occurrence of aphids infesting large cardamom and their efficiency in transmitting large cardamom viruses in northeastern sub-Himalayan region

Sikkim and Darjeeling hills of India are the largest producer and exporter of large cardamom. The two aphid-transmitted viruses, cardamom bushy dwarf virus (CBDV, genus Babuvirus) and large cardamom chirke virus (LCCV, genus Macluravirus), seriously affect the production of large cardamom. In the present study, three aphid species, Micromyzus kalimpongensis Basu, Pentalonia nigronervosa Coquerel and Aulacorthum solani Kalt. were identified and documented to colonize large cardamom in the different plantations based on survey, morphometrics and COI gene sequence-based phylogeny. A. solani was recorded in large cardamom for the first time in this study. The temporal occurrence and distribution of these three aphid species have been documented. M. kalimpongensis, a root feeding aphid was consistently present in large cardamom plantations throughout the year; predominantly on high altitude (>900 m) plantations. P. nigronervosa was predominant in plantations <1000 m altitude, and the population was higher during the summer season only. The incidence of A. solani was observed during the winter season only. All the aphid species infesting large cardamom were tested for their ability to transmit the two viruses, CBDV, and LCCV. Only, M. kalimpongensis but not the other two species of aphid could transmit CBDV to large cardamom. P. nigronervosa transmitted only LCCV, however, the rate of transmission was low. A. solani could not transmit any one of these viruses.

Insect and Mammalian Pests of Large Cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxburgh) in Sikkim Himalaya

Insect and Mammalian Pests of Large Cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxburgh) in Sikkim Himalaya Large cardamom is an important cash crop of Sikkim and Darjeeling district of West Bengal. About 3863 MT of large cardamom are produced annually from an area of 26,459 ha in Sikkim region. Insect pests are one of the constraints of large cardamom production. Surveillance was carried out in the major large cardamom growing tracts during 2010 - 12 and incidences of major pests were recorded. Minor insect pests, mammalian pests and new pests in large cardamom ecosystem were documented. Entomopathogens of leaf caterpillar (Artona chorista) were identified...

Impact of Climate Change on Large Cardamom-Based Livelihoods in Panchthar District, Nepal

The paper aims at analyzing the impact of climate change on large cardamom-based livelihoods in Panchthar district by reviewing literature and compiling perceptions of local people. Large cardamom, a newly introduced high-value cash crop grown in 36 hill and mountain districts in Nepal, is cultivated in all 41 Village Development Committees of Panchthar district concentrating largely in its northern and eastern parts at the elevations of roughly between 500 to 2000 meters above sea level. Though area coverage and production of large cardamom is limited compared to other crops, its contribution on people’s livelihood is significant as it has high market value. Production of large cardamom contributes much on people’s livelihoods as it is the main source of household income and provides seasonal employment to thousands of people from farm to the market. Some local cultural producers have also been using bi-products of large cardamom for production of handicrafts such as baskets, tablemats, bags, and window blinders. Besides, it has numerous indirect implications such as reduction in soil erosion and landslides, and increase in biodiversity and carbon’s tock. In recent years, production of large cardamom has been declining as a result of climate change induced factors. The decline adversely affects people’s livelihoods.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ttp.v13i0.11544The Third PoleVol. 13, 2013page : 33-38

Nine novel DNA components associated with the foorkey disease of large cardamom: Evidence of a distinct babuvirus species in Nanoviridae

Foorkey disease is a serious constraint to the production of large cardamom (Amomum subulatum, family Zingiberaceae). The disease is characterized by profuse proliferation of excessive stunted shoots, which makes the clump totally unproductive. The disease has been known in India since 1936 but the complete genome of the virus had not yet been characterized. In a preliminary study, an associated virus tentatively named as Cardamom bushy dwarf virus (CBDV) was identified based on the partial sequence of a single DNA component (DNA-R). In the present study, a high incidence (37.2–39.3%) of foorkey was recorded in certain plantations in the Darjeeling hills located at lower altitudes (300–1380m) and CBDV was detected in several field samples by PCR. Nine novel DNA components were isolated and characterized from foorkey affected plants. CBDV contained six major DNA components (DNA-R, -S, -M, -C, -N and -U3) similar to the integral genome components known for the members of the genus Babuvirus in the family Nanoviridae. Additional components, satellite Rep (DNA-sRep1) and unknown components (DNA-Uf1 and -Uf2) were also identified. The size of the genome components ranged from 1028 to 1127. The sequence identity and phylogeny based on the individual components as well as overall genome (59.8–62% identity) distinguished CBDV from the two existing babuvirus species, Banana bunchy top virus and Abaca bunchy top virus. CBDV is the first distinct babuvirus species that affects plant species outside family Musaceae. This study shows further diversity in the genus Babuvirus.

Highly efficient immunodiagnosis of Large cardamom chirke virus using the polyclonal antiserum against Escherichia coli expressed recombinant coat protein

Large cardamom chirke virus (LCCV), genus Macluravirus, family Potyviridae is an important constrain in large cardamom production in India. Purification of LCCV from large cardamom tissues is difficult and therefore immunodiagnostic reagents are not available. In the present study, we have successfully expressed coat protein (CP) gene of LCCV in Escherichia coli. The purification of expressed protein by Ni-NTA affinity chromatography was inefficient due to precipitation of protein during renaturation. We have optimized a simple, inexpensive and efficient method for purification of the expressed CP through gel extraction with 5% SDS followed by renaturation in Milli-Q water, which resulted in high yield (4.7mg/ml) and good quality of the protein. A higher titer (1:256,000) polyclonal antibody (PAb) to the recombinant CP was produced, which strongly recognized LCCV in crude leaf extract and showed minimal background reaction with the healthy leaf extract in enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and dot immunobinding assay (DIBA). The sensitivities of the ELISA and DIBA were 5 and 0.1ng of expressed protein, respectively. Both the ELISA and DIBA were validated with 100% accuracy in detecting LCCV in field samples. The PAb differentiated Cardamom mosaic virus, another close relative of LCCV. Our study is first to report highly efficient immunodiagnosis with PAb to E. coli expressed recombinant CP of a virus under the genus Macluravirus. The antigen expression construct and PAb developed in the present study will be useful in production of virus free planting materials of large cardamom.