Carcass Burial Research Articles

Higher temperature variability in deforested mountain regions impacts the competitive advantage of nocturnal species.

Deforestation is a major contributor to biodiversity loss, yet the impact of forest loss on daily microclimate variability and its implications for species with different daily activity patterns remain poorly understood. Using a recently developed microclimate model, we investigated the effects of deforestation on the daily temperature range (DTR) in low-elevation tropical regions and high-elevation temperate regions. Our results show that deforestation substantially increases DTR in these areas, suggesting a potential impact on species interactions. To test this hypothesis, we studied the competitive interactions between nocturnal burying beetles and all-day-active blowfly maggots in forested and deforested habitats in Taiwan. We show that deforestation leads to increased DTR at higher elevations, which enhances the competitiveness of blowfly maggots during the day and leads to a higher failure rate of carcass burial by the beetles at night. Thus, deforestation-induced temperature variability not only modulates exploitative competition between species with different daily activity patterns, but also likely exacerbates the negative impacts of climate change on nocturnal organisms. In order to limit potential adverse effects on species interactions and their ecological functions, our study highlights the need to protect forests, especially in areas where deforestation can greatly alter temperature variability.

The formation conditions of gigantic dolomite concretions including whale bones exposed in Unosaki coast, Oga peninsula, Japan

Carbonate concretions occur in sedimentary rocks of widely varying geological ages throughout the world. Recently, more than 100 gigantic carbonate concretions with diameters ranging from 1 to 9 m have been identified along the Unosaki coast of Oga Peninsula, Akita Prefecture, Japan. The formation process of such gigantic concretions, some of which along the Unosaki coast contain whale bones, remains uncertain. A mineral composition analysis reveals that the major mineral of the concretions is dolomite. Considering the location of dolomite precipitation, their composition implies that the concretions were formed in a reducing environment in which sulfate ions were removed. Stable carbon and oxygen isotopic analysis reveals that the CaCO3 of whale bone and concretions contains light δ13C and heavy δ18O, suggesting that whale organic matter contributed to the formation of the concretions. The gigantic carbonate concretions were presumably formed by the accumulation and burial of whale carcasses with high sedimentation rates, and subsequent reaction of carbon decomposed by benthic and microbial activity with seawater.

Canine hepatic calodiosis with cirrhosis.

The nematode parasite Calodium hepaticum (Capillaria hepatica) has a global distribution and is commonly reported in rodents (definitive host), dogs, cats and wild animals. Humans especially children are more susceptible to the parasitic infection. This paper documents an incidental finding of hepatic calodiosis with cirrhosis in a stray dog and discusses the zoonotic implications. A non descript dog was brought for necropsy examination to the Department of Veterinary Pathology, Madras Veterinary College, Tamil Nadu, India. Liver appeared dark brown, mottled with multifocal random variably sized, grey white flat firm areas. Histopathologically, liver tissue revealed multiple random encysted large collection of eggs surrounded by mild inflammation with a few lymphocytes, macrophages and fine fibrosis. The eggs had characteristic barrel shape, bipolar ends, bilayered wall, cross striations between the walls, and yolk. Periodic acid Schiff stain demonstrated the glycolic wall of ova. Marked portal to portal fibrosis was demonstrated by Masson's trichrome (for collagen) and by Warthin-Starry (for reticulin) stains. The stage of parasitic infection was diagnosed as intermediate to chronic due to fibrosis. A need to study the prevalence of the disease in rodents, human and animals is emphasized. Improper burial of carcasses of rodents and dogs may contribute to spread of infection. Pets and stray animals may transmit infection to human and pose health risk.

Vulture distribution and people perception of vultures in Pokhara Valley, Nepal.

Due to an abundance and diversity of vultures, Nepal is one of the most important countries for vulture conservation. Within Nepal, the Pokhara Valley is especially significant. We examine the distribution of vultures within the Pokhara Valley by conducting counts at 11 potential feeding or roosting sites using point count method. We further surveyed people of the valley regarding their perception of vulture ecology and conservation, knowledge of diclofenac use within the valley, and burial of livestock carcasses. We detected eight species of vultures, four of which are currently threatened with extinction. White‐rumped vulture Gyps bengalensis, Egyptian vulture Nephron percnopterus, and Himalayan vulture G. himalayensis were the most abundant. Almost all respondents (98%) had sighted the vultures in the wild. Formally educated respondents reported seeing vultures’ slightly more than nonformally educated respondents. Fifty‐eight percent respondents suspected habitat loss was the major threat for the vulture population decline in Pokhara Valley, and 97% respondents were not aware of any diclofenac use. The knowledge of vultures in people with different age groups suggests a more awareness programs are needed for local people, especially those who carry out animal husbandry and provide livestock to the vulture restaurant.

Decomposition process for buried rat (Rattus norvegicus, Berkenhout 1769) carcasses in Riyadh city, Saudi Arabia: A preliminary study.

The present report outlines the initial observations from an ongoing study examining the decomposition rate of buried rat (Rattus norvegicus, Berkenhout 1769) carcasses in Riyadh city, Saudi Arabia. Eight rat carcasses were buried in separate holes at depths of 20 and 40 cm (four holes per depth) to allow natural decomposition and examined at 10-day intervals up to 40 days. During the study period, environmental factors such as humidity, soil temperature, and air temperature were monitored at each depth on a daily basis. At the end of each burial period, one carcass from each depth was exhumed and the degree of decay and presence of insect activity were examined. The results showed that burial depth and temperature were major factors affecting the decomposition rate, whereas no insect activity was observed. The findings of this study can be used to more accurately estimate the time since burial of carcasses.

Frequency of carcass burial in animal burrows for reproduction by Nicrophorus concolor (Coleoptera: Silphidae)

Burying beetles (Coleoptera: Silphidae: Nicrophorus) occasionally bury small vertebrate carcasses in animal burrows for use in reproduction. However, few studies have examined how often this burying behavior occurs under natural conditions. Here, I determined the frequency of animal burrow utilization by Nicrophorus concolor by placing rat carcasses in a field without consideration of animal burrow proximity. I observed that 36% of the carcasses were buried in animal burrows. The results suggest that Nicrophorus concolor may frequently utilize animal burrows, which may be important for its reproduction.

Nationwide groundwater monitoring around infectious-disease-caused livestock mortality burials in Korea: Superimposed influence of animal leachate on pre-existing anthropogenic pollution

A foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreak during 2010 affected the entire country of South Korea and approximately 3.4 million swine and bovine mortalities were disposed of at approximately 4800 on-farm burial sites for a few months following the first outbreak. Furthermore, outbreaks of avian influenza (AI) have struck Korea consistently since 2014. Public concern regarding the deterioration of the surrounding environment has been raised aiming at the enormous infected animal carcass burials. On behalf of the Ministry of Environment (ME) of the Korean government, we conducted groundwater monitoring at approximately 3000 wells around the burial sites for 7 years from 2011 to 2017. The baseline groundwater already had enriched levels of nitrogen and chloride compounds masking the influence of leachate with the pre-existing anthropogenic contamination. Based on the trend analysis, most monitoring wells had no significant trends in NO3-N and Cl implying that an abrupt degradation in water quality was not expected across the country. Increasing proportions of total coliform detection in the groundwater of the majority of provinces will cause potential damage to human health around the carcass burial sites. Wells showing frequent upward and downward trends near the carcass burial pits were targeted for principal component analysis (PCA) and the results showed that NH4-N, TOC, Cl, and K could be indicators distinguishing the sole impacts of animal leachate on the groundwater. Analyses of the nationwide monitoring data indicated possibly delayed and prolonged impacts of the widespread burials of livestock mortalities on the groundwater environment. The finding provides realistic insight regarding how to manage the mass burial of livestock mortalities to protect groundwater resources.

A critical review on risk evaluation and hazardous management in carcass burial

Carcass disposal from livestock disease outbreaks or on-farm, routine mortalities present a number of challenges. Proper management of carcasses can no longer be addressed as an incidental occurrence, as they represent a persistent pathway of infectious agricultural wastes with potential to harm the environment. The long-term management of carcass disposal sites is essential irrespective of the cause of mortality. Critically this ensures eradication of disease and environmental protection from a range of biological and chemical hazards. Strategies for large-scale carcass disposal require preparation and coordinated, proactive planning in advance of emergencies to meet environmental protection guidelines and maximize the efficiency of response.Carcass disposal methods include burial, incineration, composting, alkaline hydrolysis, lactic acid fermentation and anaerobic digestion. Burial techniques include trench burial, landfill, and notably mass burial as one of the most common methods of disposal. However, there are concerns about possible impacts to the environment and subsequent risk to human health regardless of the initial logistical and economic advantages.This review provides an overview of our current understanding of the potential threats of carcass burial and possible management options. The environmental implications of terminating burials is discussed as is the role of biochar and phytoremediation which can contribute to the management of burials. These examples are considered in the case study context of Korea where long-term considerations remain a priority. The outcome of the review is structured to provide information to decision-makers that is of value when equipping themselves with comprehensive guidelines for the sustained management of carcass burials. Finally, recommendations that address future research needs are outlined.

Speciation and Geochemical Implications of Carcass Burial Leachate

Abstract. In the event of a mass livestock mortality situation, disposal routes such as burial are commonly chosen. The impact of burial on the environment could be substantial, but the composition of the leachate arising from a burial site has not been well documented. This study was performed to determine the chemical composition of leachate arising from animal mortalities in a burial setting. Three species of livestock were used: bovine, swine, and poultry. Leachate collected from lined burial pits over two years of decomposition was analyzed for major and minor ions. Analysis indicated that livestock mortality leachate contains, on average, concentrations of 46,000 mg L-1 of alkalinity (as bicarbonate), 12,600 mg L-1 of ammonium-N, 2600 mg L-1 of chloride, 3600 mg L-1 of sulfate, 2300 mg L-1 of potassium, 1800 mg L-1 of sodium, and 1500 mg L-1 of phosphorus, along with lesser amounts of iron, calcium, and magnesium. Select samples had maximum concentrations of ammonium-N and bicarbonate up to 50% higher than these average values. In comparison to earthen swine manure storages and landfills, the ionic strength of the leachate was 2 to 4 times higher, and therefore its impact on water resources could be greater. Following the study of the chemical composition of livestock mortality leachate, the potential impacts of this leachate on the soil/water systems below a burial site were investigated. The ionic strength of the leachate presents its own set of challenges. Basic modeling of ion activity using the five most common activity coefficient equations (Debye-Hückel, extended Debye-Hückel, Truesdell-Jones, Davies, and Pitzer) were considered to assess the sensitivity of these methods for calculated ion activity as impacted by the ionic strength of the leachate. This was completed to further enhance the modeling and speciation efforts. Based on the results and the applicability of the Truesdell-Jones equation, PHREEQC was used to assess the chemical speciation of the leachate. The speciation of this leachate provides evidence of phosphate and sulfate compounds available for potential unattenuated transport. Understanding the geochemical implications of livestock mortality burial will give scientists and regulators more information for performing future risk analyses when considering mortality burial as a management option, either routinely or during a mass mortality event. Keywords: Ion activity coefficient, Ionic strength, Leachate chemical composition, Livestock burial leachate, Speciation.

Functional compensation by insular scavengers: the relative contributions of vertebrates and invertebrates vary among islands

When the extinction of some species results in loss of ecosystem functions, other species may be able to compensate for this loss. Functional compensation has recently been observed on islands where species are likely to become extinct; however, few studies have analysed functional compensation by scavengers in insular environments. Here, we investigated the ecosystem functions of vertebrate and invertebrate scavengers on Honshu, the main island of Japan, and offshore islands (four of the Oki Islands). The Oki Islands lack several native vertebrate scavengers (raccoon dogs, boars, martens, and foxes) that are abundant on Honshu. We experimentally placed mouse carcasses on the forest floors of Honshu (12 sites) and the Oki Islands (7 sites on Dōgo, 4 sites on Nishinoshima, 4 sites on Nakanoshima, and 3 sites on Chiburijima) in September–October 2014 and 2015. Nearly all of the mouse carcasses (95–100%) placed on the forest floor disappeared within 1 week. However, the relative importance of vertebrate and invertebrate scavengers varied among islands. Vertebrate and invertebrate scavengers contributed equally on Honshu (carcass removal by vertebrates, 47%), whereas vertebrate scavengers rarely contributed to carcass removal on three of the Oki Islands (carcass removal by vertebrates: 17% on Dōgo, 30% on Nishinoshima, and 5% on Nakanoshima). Consequently, invertebrate scavengers (Nicrophorus burying beetles) functionally compensated for the low species diversity of vertebrate scavengers on the three islands (carcass burial by Nicrophorus beetles, 65–95%). However, on the small island of Chiburijima, introduced raccoon dogs contributed to nearly all of the removals (93%), suggesting that introduced scavengers can compensate for the functional reduction. This functional compensation by scavengers may help stabilise the functions and/or services of scavengers in island environments.

Impacts of leachates from livestock carcass burial and manure heap sites on groundwater geochemistry and microbial community structure.

We investigated the impacts of leachates from a swine carcass burial site and a cow manure heap on the geochemical and microbiological properties of agricultural water samples, including leachate, groundwater from monitoring wells and background wells, and stream water. The leachate from the livestock burial site showed extremely high electrical conductivity, turbidity, and major ion concentrations, but low redox potential and dissolved oxygen levels. The groundwater in the monitoring wells adjacent to both sites showed severe contamination from the leachate, as indicated by the increases in EC, turbidity, Cl-, and SO42-. Bacteria from the phylum Firmicutes and Bacteriodetes and Archaea from the phylum Euryarchaeota were the major phyla in both the leachates and manure heap. However, the class- or genus-level components of these phyla differed markedly between the leachate and manure heap samples. The relative abundance of Firmicutes decreased from 35% to 0.3~13.9% in the monitoring wells and background wells at both sites. The Firmicutes in these wells was unlikely to have originated from the transportation of leachate to the surrounding environment because Firmicutes genera differed drastically between the leachate and monitoring wells. Meanwhile, sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) from the livestock carcass burial site were detected in the monitoring wells close to the leachate. This was likely because the release of carcass decomposition products, such as organic acids, to adjacent areas improved the suitability of the local environments for SRB, which were not abundant in the leachate. This study highlights the need to better understand microbial community dynamics along groundwater flow paths to evaluate bacterial transport in subsurface environments and provides new insights into the effective management of groundwater quality at both farm and regional scales.

Enhanced Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal by Woody Plants with Deep-Planting Technique for the Potential Environmental Management of Carcass Burial Sites

Phytoremediation is a promising technology to remediate carcass burial sites where deep soil layers are contaminated with nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and other potential contaminants by leachate. The current study was conducted to examine the remedial efficiency of two different woody plants, poplar (Populus euramericana) and willow (Salix alba), by employing the deep-planting technique for the enhanced removal of N and P for the soil affected by leachate. For this, pot trials to assess N and P removal efficiency of poplar and willow in liquid manure-applied soil, and pilot-scale column experiments to evaluate the suitability of the deep-planting technique for the enhanced phytoremediation of deep soil layer were conducted. The results of this study showed that poplar and willow removed N and P from soils effectively while surviving under deep-planting conditions. Notably, compared to the surface planted roots, the roots of the deep-planted poplar and willow could transfer significant amounts of N and P leachate from the deep soil layer to the rhizosphere, from where it can be absorbed by the plants. For the first time, the use of poplar or willow plants are recommended by employing the deep-planting technique for the successful remediation of carcass burial sites.

Geochemical Evolution and Leachate Transport Beneath Two Carcass Burial Sites: A Field Investigation

Abstract. This study presents the first complete investigation using soil coring to evaluate the geochemical evolution of leachate plumes beneath existing livestock burial sites. The objective of the study was to broaden our understanding and provide evidence-based resources for minimizing the environmental impacts of mass-mortality carcass burial. Pre-existing livestock burial sites were selected for a detailed analysis of contaminant transport beneath and surrounding the sites in an attempt to determine the risk to soil and groundwater. This analysis entailed soil coring at the site along with specific ion and solution extraction analyses on the soil cores to provide detailed 2-D images of leachate movement around and below the burial sites. The first site, near Pierceland, Saskatchewan, was used in 2001 to bury euthanized elk potentially suffering from chronic wasting disease (CWD). The soil cores were taken seven years post-burial, and the extent of leachate transport, upon analysis of the soil cores, was 1 to 1.5 m of vertical transport of anions (Cl, alkalinity), as well as some cations arising from ion exchange reactions (Ca and Mg). Ammonium ions were attenuated near the bottom and in the first meter beneath the bottom of the trench. There was no indication of lateral movement of ions at this site. The second site, near McLean, Saskatchewan, was used in 1952 to bury carcasses of culled livestock during an emergency depopulation effort for disease control measures during Canada’s only outbreak of foot and mouth disease. This site was cored nearly 60 years post-burial and demonstrated that vertical leachate movement was relatively slow over the 60 years, with movement of up to 1 to 2 m. Due to the presence of sand lenses in and around the burial pit, horizontal movement of up to 10 m of anions, such as Cl and bicarbonate, was discovered. Ammonium ions were indicated within the confines of the burial pit and in the soil immediately surrounding the pit. Both sites demonstrated plume characteristics consistent with previous geochemical models, and both showed little impact to the immediate surrounding environment. This would appear to indicate that the burial site selection characteristics were appropriately determined and that many parts of Saskatchewan are suitable for mass quantities of livestock carcass burial in the event of catastrophic events such as disease outbreaks or natural disasters. Keywords: Carcass leachate, Contaminant transport, Groundwater, Livestock burial, Mortality, Site investigation, Soil.

Experiences of Mass Pig Carcass Disposal Related to Groundwater Quality Monitoring in Taiwan

The pig industry is the most crucial animal industry in Taiwan; 10.7 million pigs were reared for consumption in 1996. A foot and mouth disease (FMD) epidemic broke out on 19 March 1997, and 3,850,536 pigs were culled before July in the same year. The major disposal method of pig carcasses from the FMD outbreak was burial, followed by burning and incineration. To investigate groundwater quality, environmental monitoring of burial sites was performed from October 1997 to June 1999; groundwater monitoring of 90–777 wells in 20 prefectures was performed wo to six times in 1998. Taiwanese governmental agencies analyzed 3723 groundwater samples using a budget of US $1.5 million. The total bacterial count, fecal coliform, Salmonella spp., nitrite-N, nitrate-N, ammonium-N, sulfate, non-purgeable organic carbon, total oil, and total dissolved solid were recognized as indicators of groundwater contamination resulting from pig carcass burial. Groundwater at the burial sites was considered to be contaminated on the basis of the aforementioned indicators, particularly groundwater at burial sites without an impermeable cloth and those located at a relatively short distance from the monitoring well. The burial sites selected during outbreaks in Taiwan should have a low surrounding population, be away from water preservation areas, and undergo regular monitoring of groundwater quality.

Costs analysis of carcass burial site construction: Focused on the foot and mouth disease 2011, South Korea

Many burial sites were constructed in a short time to prevent the rapid spread of foot and mouth disease in infected livestock carcasses in Korea. More than 4,700 carcass burial sites were constructed in 2011. Approximately seven million poultry and 3.5 million livestock, including cattle and swine, were buried on farmland. Some burial sites were suspected of leachate leakage and were excavated and carcasses redisposed in a bioaugmentation process. This study performed interviews in order to understand the economic issues related to carcass burial and redisposal. The internal data from local government and the assumption data from online sites were analyzed to evaluate the costs; the focus was on burial site construction. The results showed that the local government paid $4.7 and $10.9 per carcass for traditional burial and redisposal. The comparable costs shown online were $4.5. This study found that the standard operating procedures should be carried out to reduce environmental impact and avoid additional costs. We estimated that the cost could be reduced by the advance preparations of materials against the emergency situations such as catastrophe of epidemics. In addition, the innovative technology for the stabilization of carcasses should be established through a future study.

The dolomite nodules enclosing fossil marine vertebrates in the East Pisco Basin, Peru: Field and petrographic insights into the Lagerstätte formation

Abstract The Mio-Pliocene Pisco Formation (Peru) is a world-famous marine vertebrate Lagerstatte. Several fossil specimens are wrapped up in dolomitic nodules. Some others lie in the sediment displaying dolomite only in bone cavities (e.g., mesorostral canal and endocranium). With the aim to understand whether the precipitation of the dolomitic nodules influenced the formation of the Lagerstatte, we collected field data on a high number of fossil vertebrates and conducted petrographic and mineralogical analyses on samples representative of the variable development of concretions. Our results revealed positive relationships between size, completeness and articulation of skeletons and the presence of an external nodule. Clear evidence of chemoautotrophic communities that thrived on the carcasses is scarce. Microborings are often found in the cortical bone tissues together with iron oxides; the former are left by microorganisms feeding on the carcass, the latter are traces of former Fe sulphides, a product of organic matter degradation. We suggest that an early burial of the skeletons was a determinant factor in the development of dolomite concretions, since it allowed methanogenesis and anaerobic sulphate reduction exploiting the lipids in the bones and the organic matter dispersed in the sediments. Dolomite precipitation was driven by the same bacteria operating during the suphophilic stage of whale-fall communities. Textural observations imply that dolomite precipitated shortly after the burial of carcasses. The increase of alkalinity generated by sulphate reduction and methanogenesis caused a rapid precipitation of the dolomite within skeletal cavities and prevented the degradation of the bones and diagenetic compression of skeletons; the nodules themselves prevented erosion of fossils after exhumation. Therefore, nodule formation had a crucial role in the development of the Pisco Lagerstatte.

Survey on Geochemical Characteristics of Groundwater Around Carcass Burial Area and Agricultural Area with Livestock Facilities

In this study, chemical characteristics of groundwater around carcass burial areas and those in agricultural and livestock-farming complex areas in South Korea were monitored. Groundwater samples were collected from 166 wells around carcass burial sites and 466 wells around the agricultural areas where carcass burial sites are absent. The chemical parameters (pH, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, oxidation reduction potential, NO 3- N, NH 4- N, and Cl - ) in carcass burial areas and agricultural areas were similar. The NO 3- N concentrations exhibited minimal seasonal fluctuations below 30 mg L -1 in most of the wells, even in the wells located close to the carcass burial sites; and Cl - concentrations also showed similar patterns. The chemical characteristics of groundwater monitored in this study indicated that groundwater was widely contaminated by agricultural activities and livestock farming, but probably not by leachates derived from nearby carcass burial sites.

A Study on the Operation Parameter for Treatment of Carcass Burial Leachate in High Temperature Thermal Desorption

A Study on the Operation Parameter for Treatment of Carcass Burial Leachate in High Temperature Thermal Desorption

고온 열탈착 시설을 이용한 가축 매몰지 침출수 처리를 위한 유해물질 특성분석연구

고온 열탈착 시설을 이용한 가축 매몰지 침출수 처리를 위한 유해물질 특성분석연구

Potential water quality impacts originating from land burial of cattle carcasses

Among the conventional disposal methods for livestock mortalities, on-farm burial is a preferred method, but the potential water quality impacts of animal carcass burial are not well understood. Typically, on-farm burial pits are constructed without liners and any leachate produced may infiltrate into soil and groundwater. To date, no information is available on temporal trends for contaminants in leachate produced from livestock mortality pits. In our study, we examined the concentrations of conventional contaminants including electrical conductivity, COD, TOC, TKN, TP, and solids, as well as veterinary antimicrobials and steroid hormones in leachate over a period of 20months. Most of the contaminants were detected in leachate after 50days of decomposition, reaching a peak concentration at approximately 200days and declined to baseline levels by 400days. The estrogen 17β-estradiol and a veterinary antimicrobial, monensin, were observed at maximum concentrations of 20,069ng/L and 11,980ng/L, respectively. Estimated mass loading of total steroid hormone and veterinary pharmaceuticals were determined to be 1.84 and 1.01μg/kg of buried cattle carcass materials, respectively. These data indicate that leachate from carcass burial sites represents a potential source of nutrients, organics, and residues of biologically active micro-contaminants to soil and groundwater.