Carbonate Minerals Research Articles

A comparative hydrochemical assessment of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes using different statistical and ML models in lower gangetic alluvial plain, eastern India.

A comparative hydrochemical assessment of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes using different statistical and ML models in lower gangetic alluvial plain, eastern India.

Microbial-induced mineral carbonation: A promising approach for improving Carbon sequestration and performance of steel slag for its engineering utilization

Microbial-induced mineral carbonation: A promising approach for improving Carbon sequestration and performance of steel slag for its engineering utilization

Carbonate mineral precipitation induced by microorganisms enriched from the cave water and biofilm in a lime-decorated lava tube

Cave microorganisms associated with calcareous speleothems have been reported to facilitate calcium carbonate precipitation through crystal nucleation and mineral growth. In this study, we used carbonate-forming microorganisms enriched from cave water droplets and stalactite biofilm samples to induce precipitation of Mg2+ or Sr2+-coprecipitated carbonate minerals and explored their mineralogical properties. The samples for these analyses were collected from Yongcheon Cave, a lime-decorated lava tube located on Jeju Island in South Korea. They included five soil and sediment samples from outside the cave, seven drip water samples from inside the cave, and nine biofilm samples swiped using sterilized cotton swabs from inside the cave. The microorganisms enriched from the drip water samples comprised bacterial genera, including Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Stenotrophomonas, Acinetobacter, and Morganella. which are known to contribute to carbonate formation. In contrast, the microorganisms enriched from the biofilms were dominated by Pseudomonas. When only Ca2+ was present in the growth medium (Ca:Sr = 3:0), these microorganisms precipitated calcite and vaterite. Conversely, when Ca2+ and Sr2+ were present at varying ratios (Ca:Sr = 2:1, 1:1, and 1:2), calcian-strontianite was precipitated. Furthermore, when only Sr2+ was present (Ca:Sr = 0:3), strontianite was formed. Adding Ca2+ and Mg2+ at varying ratios (Ca:Mg = 2:1, 1:1, and 1:2) led to the precipitation of magnesian-calcite and monohydrocalcite. When only Mg2+ was added to the medium (Ca:Mg = 0:3), nesquehonite and struvite precipitated. These findings suggest that microorganisms enriched from the lava tube cave induce calcium carbonate precipitation through ureolysis and that Sr/Cr and Mg/Ca ratios influence the type of precipitated carbonate or phosphate minerals.

Effects of Polyacrylic Acid with Different Molecular Weights on Stress Generation through Regulating the Growth of Calcium Carbonate within Collagen.

Mineralized collagen fibrils are the building blocks of bone, and the mineralization of collagen fibrils is generally regulated by noncollagenous proteins (NCPs). However, the functions of NCPs are difficult to investigate in vivo. Here, we use poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) with different molecular weights (5, 50, 450, and 4000 kDa) as analogs of NCPs and explore their effects on collagen mineralization in vitro. All the PAA molecules can promote the intrafibrillar mineralization of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) following these steps: the precursors infiltrate the gap zones of collagen, and transform into organized calcite nanocrystals within collagen. An increase in molecular weight significantly accelerates the mineralization rate of collagen films, approximately 0.67 μm min-1 at 4000 kDa, four times that of 5 kDa (0.16 μm min-1). However, the generation of contractile stress via intrafibrillar mineralization in tendons exhibits a contrary tendency. It reaches 24.2 MPa at 5 kDa, much higher than that of 4000 kDa (8.3 MPa), due to rapid mineralization causing severe extrafibrillar precipitation around the tendon. The controllable mineralization of collagen matrices may inspire the development of bone repair and regeneration in the future.

The Carbon Mineralization in Different Soil Textures Affected by Wheat Straw and Soil Salinity.

To study the effect of different salinities (0, 10, 30 and 60 dS/m) and wheat straw levels (0 and 2% by weight with C/N = 89.5) on carbon mineralization during 180 days (1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 11, 15, 19, 24, 29, 36, 46, 60, 75, 90, 120, and 180), this study was conducted at the Soil and Water Research Institute, Karaj, Iran in 2022. For this purpose, three soils with low salinity (0.84-1.1 dS/m) and low organic carbon (0.22-0.98%) with different textural classes (Loamy, Clay Loam, and Silty Loam) were selected from Iranian agricultural soils. The results showed that the amount of cumulative mineralized carbon in loamy soil ranged from 93 to 2379mg/kg, in clay loam soil ranged from 172 to 2277mg/kg, and in the silty loam ranged from 122 to 3158mg/kg. Furthermore, in the studied soils, the highest amount of cumulative mineralized carbon was measured at natural soil salinity levels (i.e., low salinity 0.84-1.1 dS/m) and the lowest amount of cumulative mineralized carbon was measured in high salinity treatments. In all three soils, the amount of mineralized carbon increased rapidly in the first week and then gradually decreased, which is due to the availability of easily degradable parts of organic matter against a wide range of microorganisms in the early stages of decomposition. In general, it is concluded that the presence of wheat straw in the soil may decrease the negative effects of high salt concentrations on carbon mineralization and reduce losses.

Hydrogeochemistry and its relationship with land use pattern and monsoon in hard rock aquifer

Influences of land use and monsoon recharge on groundwater geochemistry in the hard rock aquifer in south India are studied using geochemical modelling, geochemical and geospatial tools, and Pearson correlation analysis (PCA). Groundwater samples were collected from 2017 to 2019 (n = 267) and analysed for EC, pH, major ions, and minor ions. Water samples were classified into urban (n = 89) and agricultural (n = 178) regions based on land use patterns. Groundwater is very hard (Total Hardness > 180 mg/l; 74%), and the predominant water types are Ca–Mg–Cl followed by Na-Cl. In the agricultural region, groundwater is less mineralized (TDS < 500 mg/l; 62%) compared to urban regions (38%). In the urban wells, ionic strength and Log pCO2 justified the wastewater infiltration. The groundwater is undersaturated with halite, gypsum, anhydrite and fluorite and saturated/supersaturated with carbonate minerals. PCA and geochemical tools indicate that water chemistry is predominantly governed by silicate weathering and ion exchange reactions. The interconnection between Cl−, SO42− and NO3− ensures the impact of nitrification/nitrate sources along with anthropogenic input. In 2018, Cl− and NO3− contents were reduced by dilution due to high rainfall (2061 mm), whereas HCO3− was enriched owing to recharge-induced mineral dissolution. Geospatial tools explain that the groundwater quality was improved in 2018 and justified by NO3− (< 45 mg/l; 3291 to 4138 km2; > 100 mg/l; 176 to 9 km2), Cl (< 200 mg/l, 1975 to 2747km2) and HCO3− distributions. The outcome of this study highlights that urban wells are highly polluted and need proper management practices to protect this hard rock aquifer.

Thermal Ca2+/Mg2+ exchange reactions to synthesize CO2 removal materials.

Most current strategies for carbon management require CO2 removal (CDR) from the atmosphere on the multi-hundred gigatonne (Gt) scale by 2100 (refs. 1-5). Mg-rich silicate minerals can remove >105 Gt CO2 and sequester it as stable and innocuous carbonate minerals or dissolved bicarbonate ions3,6,7. However, the reaction rates of these minerals under ambient conditions are far too slow for practical use. Here we show that CaCO3 and CaSO4 react quantitatively with diverse Mg-rich silicates (for example, olivine, serpentine and augite) under thermochemical conditions to form Ca2SiO4 and MgO. On exposure to ambient air under wet conditions, Ca2SiO4 is converted to CaCO3 and silicic acid, and MgO is partially converted into a Mg carbonate within weeks, whereas the input Mg silicate shows no reactivity over 6 months. Alternatively, Ca2SiO4 and MgO can be completely carbonated to CaCO3 and Mg(HCO3)2 under 1 atm CO2 at ambient temperature within hours. Using CaCO3 as the Ca source, this chemistry enables a CDR process in which the output Ca2SiO4/MgO material is used to remove CO2 from air or soil and the CO2 process emissions are sequestered. Analysis of the energy requirements indicates that this process could require less than 1 MWh per tonne CO2 removed, approximately half the energy of CO2 capture with leading direct air capture technologies. The chemistry described here could unlock Mg-rich silicates as a vast resource for safe and permanent CDR.

Mineralogical and Chemical Characteristics of Sediments in the Lhasa River Basin: Implications for Weathering and Sediment Transport

The Lhasa River, as one of the major rivers on the Tibetan Plateau, is of great value for the study of climate and environmental changes on the Tibetan Plateau. In this paper, the grain size and the mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of the sediments from the Lhasa River were investigated. The results show the following: (1) The average grain size of the Lhasa River sediments is coarse (65.5% sand, 23.6% silt), and the sorting is overall poor; the skewness is mostly positive, and the kurtosis is wide, which reflects the obvious characteristics of river sand deposition. (2) The mineral composition of the Lhasa River sediments is dominated by quartz (38.4%), feldspar, and plagioclase feldspar, followed by clay minerals, and the content of carbonate minerals is relatively low; the content of clay minerals in the illite content is as high as 83.3%, while the chlorite content is slightly higher than kaolinite, and smectite content is very low. The chemical index of illite is less than 0.4, indicating that illite is mainly iron-rich magnesium illite. (3) The value of the chemical weathering index (CIA) of the sediments is low, implying that the sediments are in a weak–moderate chemical weathering state and dominated by physical weathering. Comprehensive analyses further revealed that the weathering process of the sediments in the Lhasa River was influenced by both climate and lithology, i.e., sediment composition is influenced not only by chemical weathering in a dry, cold climate but also by physical weathering of granites exposed over large areas. The results of this study can provide scientific references for further in-depth research on the environmental and climatic effects of the Tibetan Plateau.

Contrasting CO2 Dynamics in Seagrass Meadows Between Organic Carbon (OC)‐Rich Reef and OC‐Poor Terrestrial Sediments: Implications for Enhanced Alkalinity Production

AbstractSeagrass meadows are increasingly recognized across the globe as a natural climate solution due to their significant potential in alkalinity‐driven carbon dioxide (CO2) removal, which possibly represents an overlooked component of ocean carbon removal. This study comprehensively investigated the carbonate chemistry, sediment carbon content, mineral composition, and benthic alkalinity fluxes in two distinct sites with tropical seagrass meadows: one situated in organic carbon (OC)‐rich reef sediments and the other in OC‐poor terrestrial sediments. Results showed nearly two orders of magnitude higher benthic alkalinity fluxes in the OC‐rich reefs than in OC‐poor sediments (72.8 ± 64.4 vs. 0.53 ± 0.99 mmol m−2 d−1). This can further substantially increase alkalinity levels and reduce the partial pressure of CO2 in the overlying seawater, thereby enhancing the capacity for CO2 uptake. We propose that seagrass meadows on high‐OC reef sediments, the hotspots for alkalinity generation, could amplify the climate change mitigation potential of seagrass restoration initiatives.

Actively forming microbial mats provide insight into the development of microdigitate stromatolites

Stromatolites can be traced back to ∼3.5 billion years. They were widespread in the shorelines of ancient oceans and seas. However, they are uncommon nowadays, and basic information is lacking about how these unique carbonate structures developed. Here we study the unusually thick (3–5 cm) biofilms of the 79.2 °C outflow from Köröm thermal well (Hungary) and demonstrate that its microbial mat – carbonate architecture is similar to fossilized microdigitate stromatolites. Our observations reveal vertically oriented fibrous mineral fabrics, typical of stromatolites, in the red biofilm and clotted mesostructures, typical of thrombolites, in the green biofilm. These layers contain carbonate peloids and show network structures, formed by filamentous microbes. The 16S rRNA gene-based amplicon sequencing implies that numerous undescribed taxa may contribute to the carbonate mineralisation. The biofilms abundantly contain the phyla Bacteroidota, Pseudomonadota and Cyanobacteria. Geitlerinema PCC-8501 and Raineya are characteristic for the green biofilm, whereas uncultured Oxyphotobacteria, unc. Saprospiraceae and unc. Cytophagales are abundant in the red biofilm. A hydrogen-oxidizing Hydrogenobacter within the phylum Aquificota and unclassified Bacteria together with the phylum Deinococcota dominate the water and carbonate samples. The morphological structure and taxonomic composition of Köröm biofilm is a unique representation of the development processes of microbialite formations.

CO2 geological sequestration can remove emerging contaminants in groundwater: The important role of secondary mineral carbonates.

CO2 geological sequestration can remove emerging contaminants in groundwater: The important role of secondary mineral carbonates.

Carbon Stability of Biochar and Its Effects on Soil Organic Carbon Mineralization in Coastal Wetlands

Biochar has a significant influence of both enhancing carbon sequestration in coastal wetlands and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. However, the carbon sequestration potential of biochar and the pathways that influence soil organic carbon （SOC） mineralization are still unclear. Biochar carbon stability experiments revealed the carbon sequestration potential of biochar prepared using different pyrolysis temperatures. Additionally, the effects and pathways of different biochar additions （0%, 0.1%, 1.5%, and 3%） on the mineralization of SOC were explored through soil mineralization experiments and a path model. The results showed that as the preparation temperature of biochar increased from 300℃ to 600℃, the carbon loss due to chemical oxidation decreased from 46.82% to 14.11%, and the microbial mineralization amount decreased from 3.5% to 0.2%, suggesting that the carbon sequestration potential of biochar at 600℃ was better. Soil mineralization experiments were conducted using 600℃ biochar. The addition of 1.5% biochar resulted in the lowest mineralization rate. The use of biochar increased the SOC content by 1.83 to 3.94 times and decreased the accumulated mineralization amount by 3.43% to 19.1%. The partial least squares path model was used to quantify and reveal the pathways of biochar affecting SOC mineralization in coastal wetlands, as follows： Biochar released a high content of stabilized carbon that is not easily utilized by microorganisms, leading to a low mineralization rate, and biochar increased the content and stability of macroaggregates that physically encapsulated the SOC, promoting carbon sequestration and inhibiting SOC mineralization. This study showed that enhancing the carbon stability of biochar and inhibiting SOC mineralization can enhance the carbon sequestration capacity of coastal wetlands.

Hydrochemical Characteristics and Mechanism Analysis of Shallow Groundwater in Beijing Plain Area

Groundwater is an important resource for alleviating global water scarcity. Therefore, understanding its hydrochemical characteristics and mechanisms is of great significance for groundwater management. A total of 210 groundwater samples from shallow monitoring wells in the plain area of Beijing were collected in this study. Statistical analysis, Piper diagram, spatial interpolation, Pearson correlation analysis, and the ion ratio method were used to study the hydrochemical characteristics, spatial distribution, and formation mechanism of groundwater in the plain area of Beijing. The results showed that ① The groundwater of the six groundwater systems in the plain area was mainly HCO3-Ca type. The water chemistry along the downstream of the alluvial fan of the Yongding River was HCO3-Na·Ca type. The spatial variation coefficients of chemical components in groundwater were relatively large, indicating certain spatial differences. ② A strong and significant positive correlation exists between Fe and Mn in groundwater, and their spatial distribution is similar. High concentrations were distributed in the Tongzhou area downstream of the Chaobai River, mainly due to the hydrogeological structure of thin clay layers and alternating sand. Fe and Mn in groundwater mainly came from the dissolution of iron and manganese oxides. High concentrations of F- were mainly distributed in the Wenyu River alluvial fan and Tongzhou area, which was related to the convergence of groundwater flow and the hydrogeological structure of multiple layers of clay and sand in the quaternary strata in Tongzhou. SO42- and NO3- had similar spatial layouts, with high concentrations distributed upstream of the Yongding River alluvial fan, which may have been related to the historical drainage of infiltration wells and pits. ③ The hydrochemical types of the six groundwater systems were mainly controlled by the dissolution of carbonate and sulfate rocks, and certain sampling points downstream of the Yongding River alluvial fan were affected by the dissolution of silicate rock minerals to a certain extent. The ion ratio method showed that the hydrochemical components of groundwater in the Chaobai River alluvial fan mainly came from the dissolution of calcite. The groundwater in the alluvial fans of the Wenyu River and Yongding River mainly came from the dissolution of dolomite. The hydrochemical components of groundwater in other systems were influenced by the dissolution of both the two carbonate minerals. In addition, the milligram equivalent concentration of SO42-+Cl- in the study increased with that of NO3-, confirming the influence of human activities on the hydrochemical composition of groundwater. The research results will provide data support for the evaluation and management of groundwater in the plain areas of Beijing.

The Aggregate Structure and Organic Carbon Mineralization in Forest Soils Along an Elevation Gradient in the Sygera Mountains of the Southeastern Tibetan Plateau

The distribution of the soil aggregate structure and its associated organic carbon along the elevation gradient remains unclear, but it may be crucial for the stabilization of soil carbon pools in mountainous forests. In this study, we first assessed the changes in aggregate-associated organic carbon and the aggregate structure in the 0–20 cm soil layers of an alpine forest in the Sygera Mountains along an elevation gradient (3000–4200 m). We then conducted an incubation experiment to explore the relationship between aggregates and soil organic carbon mineralization, using the Pearson correlation analysis and RDA. The results indicated that macroaggregates and microaggregates were the predominant forms of aggregates in the Sygera Mountains, contributing significantly to organic carbon (33.57% and 38.29%, respectively). As the elevation increased, the stability of aggregates in mid and high elevations (3600–4200 m) was significantly higher than that in low elevations (3000–3300 m). Aggregate stability and macroaggregate-associated organic carbon were positively correlated with the total soil organic carbon, suggesting that organic carbon is essential for promoting soil aggregation in forest soils. With the rising temperatures, the rate of soil mineralization at different elevation sites significantly increased, and the Q10 values were greater at low elevations than at mid and high elevations. This implied that soil carbon pools at low elevations were more sensitive to climate warming. The significant negative correlation between microaggregate-associated organic carbon and soil mineralization suggested that microaggregates contribute to the stabilization of soil carbon pools. Given that the link between aggregates and soil mineralization strengthened with increasing temperatures, the role of aggregates in the stabilization of forest soil carbon pools should be emphasized under a warming trend.

Short term mineralization dynamics of meat and bone meal as impacted by different natural amendments

ABSTRACT Rendered animal materials such as meat and bone meal (MBM) could serve as an excellent available resource for plant nutrient management. Here we conducted different laboratory incubation studies to test the potential of four natural amendments (Sulfur, neem cake, karanja cake and tannins) on the mineralization of carbon, nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) from MBM in two different soil types collected from certified organic fields and conventional agricultural fields. MBM mineralized quickly, with net N mineralization of upto 40% of total N within the first 12 days. Sulfur, neem and karanja reduced the nitrification rate of MBM by approximately 60, 36 and 31% and increased the retention of NH4 +-N; (20–35%) in different soil types compared with MBM alone, respectively. Tannin coating of MBM significantly deceased the ammonification rate and net N mineralization. However, tannins did not influence the nitrification rate from MBM mineralization. MBM exhibits a slow P mineralization rate, and sulfur application with MBM increased the rate of P mineralization. Our study suggests that MBM blended with sulfur, neem cake, karanja cake and tannins could slow the N mineralization rate from MBM and retain higher net mineralized N in soils for longer durations which could increase crop nutrient use efficiency.

Direct Aqueous Carbonation of Heat-Activated Lizardite; Effect of Particle Size and Solids Loading on Magnesite Yield

In this study, we investigated the effect of particle size and solids loading on the magnesite yield in the direct aqueous mineral carbonation of heat-activated lizardite. Experimentation was conducted under single-step reaction conditions (130 bar partial pressure of carbon dioxide (CO2) and 150 °C, with 0.64 M sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) and 15 wt% solids) as developed by the Albany Research Center (ARC). The objective of the study was to enhance the understanding of the direct aqueous mineral carbonation process in heat-activated lizardite. Furthermore, we aimed to shed light on how variations in particle size could affect the reaction rate, yield, and the development of protective silica layers. Our experimental data suggest that the extraction of magnesium from finer particles (sub 20 µm) is marginally more effective than from the larger size fractions. This difference likely stems from the larger surface area of fine particles (sub 20 µm) in both low and high solids loading experiments. The highest magnesite yield was 50% after 60 min, and this was achieved for both solids loadings (5 and 15 wt%), demonstrating that the solids loading had no impact on the yield. Our findings indicate rapid heat-activated lizardite reaction within 20 min, which achieved 34% and 40% conversion for 5 wt% and 15 wt% solids loading, respectively. This is followed by declining rates with increasing solids loading.

Transforming US agriculture for carbon removal with enhanced weathering

Enhanced weathering (EW) with agriculture uses crushed silicate rocks to drive carbon dioxide removal (CDR)1,2. If widely adopted on farmlands, it could help achieve net-zero emissions by 20502, 3–4. Here we show, with a detailed US state-specific carbon cycle analysis constrained by resource provision, that EW deployed on agricultural land could sequester 0.16–0.30 GtCO2 yr−1 by 2050, rising to 0.25–0.49 GtCO2 yr−1 by 2070. Geochemical assessment of rivers and oceans suggests effective transport of dissolved products from EW from soils, offering CDR on intergenerational timescales. Our analysis further indicates that EW may temporarily help lower ground-level ozone and concentrations of secondary aerosols in agricultural regions. Geospatially mapped CDR costs show heterogeneity across the USA, reflecting a combination of cropland distance from basalt source regions, timing of EW deployment and evolving CDR rates. CDR costs are highest in the first two decades before declining to about US$100–150 tCO2−1 by 2050, including for states that contribute most to total national CDR. Although EW cannot be a substitute for emission reductions, our assessment strengthens the case for EW as an overlooked practical innovation for helping the USA meet net-zero 2050 goals5,6. Public awareness of EW and equity impacts of EW deployment across the USA require further exploration7,8 and we note that mobilizing an EW industry at the necessary scale could take decades.

The effect of carbonate mineral additions on biogeochemical conditions in surface sediments and benthic–pelagic exchange fluxes

Abstract. Coastal sediments are hotspots of biogeochemical processes that are impacting subsurface and overlying water conditions. Fluid composition in sediments is altered through the mineralization of organic matter which, under oxic conditions, further lowers both pH and the carbonate saturation state. As a potential mitigation strategy for this sediment acidification, we explored the effects of mineral additions to coastal sediments. We experimentally quantified carbonate mineral dissolution kinetics of carbonate shells suitable for field application and then integrated these data into a reactive transport model that represents early diagenetic cycling of C, O, N, S, and Fe and traces total alkalinity, pH, and saturation state of CaCO3. Model simulations were carried out to delineate the impact of mineral type and amount added, porewater mixing, and organic matter mineralization rates on sediment alkalinity and its flux to the overlying water. Model results showed that the added minerals undergo initial rapid dissolution and generate saturated conditions demonstrating the potential of alkalinity enhancement in mitigating surface sediment acidification. Aragonite dissolution led to higher total alkalinity concentrations than calcite. Simulations of carbonate mineral additions to sediment environments with low rates of organic matter mineralization exhibited a substantial increase in mineral saturation state compared to sediments with high CO2 production rates, highlighting the environment-specific extent of the effect of mineral addition. Our work indicates that carbonate additions have the potential to effectively buffer surficial sediments over multiple years, yielding biogeochemical conditions that counteract the detrimental effect of low-pH sediment conditions on larval recruitment and potentially increase benthic alkalinity fluxes to support marine carbon dioxide removal (mCDR) in the overlying water.

RILEM TC 309-MCP: recommendation on terminology for mineral carbonation construction products

This recommendation is an outcome of the work carried out by RILEM Technical Committee 309-MCP “Mineral Carbonation for the Production of Construction Materials”. To facilitate exchange in the rapidly developing field of mineral carbonation for construction materials, technical terminology covering specific terms of common interest is proposed. This terminology was developed in an iterative feedback process within the technical committee.The presented terminology is recommended for use in the field of mineral carbonation technology applied to the production of construction materials and products.

Geochemical and Thermodynamic Study of Formation Water for Reservoir Management in Bibi Hakimeh Oil and Gas Field, Iran

This research evaluates the mineral ions and their concentrations in formation water from five well samples of the Bibi Hakimeh oil field (Iran). The analysis reveals the presence of calcium (Ca2+), sodium (Na+), and magnesium (Mg2+) cations, as well as sulfate (SO42−), bicarbonate (HCO3−), and chloride (Cl−) anions, which are soluble in water within the Bibi Hakimeh oil formation. Furthermore, mineral deposits of CaSO4, CaSO4.2H2O, CaCO3, and MgCO3 are investigated and predicted using StimCADE 2 software. The findings highlight the significant chemical precipitation of calcium sulfate and calcium carbonate mineral deposits under the operating conditions of the Bibi Hakimeh oil well. The geochemical composition of the formation waters is discussed to understand the equilibrium conditions and possible influence of the physical parameters. Additionally, this study examines the interaction between rock and water of the Bibi Hakimeh formation, revealing a notable correlation between the concentration of calcium and magnesium ions and the water–rock reaction in this field.