Carbon In Wood Products Research Articles

Simulating growth-based harvest adaptive to future climate change

Abstract. Forests are the main source of biomass production from solar energy and take up around 2.4±0.4 PgC per year globally. Future changes in climate may affect forest growth and productivity. Currently, state-of-the-art Earth system models use prescribed wood harvest rates in future climate projections. These rates are defined by integrated assessment models (IAMs), only accounting for regional wood demand and largely ignoring the supply side from forests. Therefore, we assess how global growth and harvest potentials of forests change when they are allowed to respond to changes in environmental conditions. For this, we simulate wood harvest rates oriented towards the actual rate of forest growth. Applying this growth-based harvest rule (GB) in JSBACH, the land component of the Max Planck Institute's Earth system model, forced by several future climate scenarios, we realized a growth potential 2 to 4 times (3–9 PgC yr−1) the harvest rates prescribed by IAMs (1–3 PgC yr−1). Limiting GB to managed forest areas (MF), we simulated a harvest potential of 3–7 PgC yr−1, 2 to 3 times higher than IAMs. This highlights the need to account for the dependence of forest growth on climate. To account for the long-term effects of wood harvest as integrated in IAMs, we added a life cycle analysis, showing that the higher supply with MF as an adaptive forest harvesting rule may improve the net mitigation effects of forest harvest during the 21st century by sequestering carbon in anthropogenic wood products.

Peatland afforestation in the UK and consequences for carbon storage

Peatlands are a globally significant store of carbon. During the second half of the 20th century new planting techniques combined with tax incentives encouraged commercial forestry across large areas of peat bog in the UK, particularly in the Flow Country of northern Scotland. Such planting was controversial and was ultimately halted by removal of the tax incentives, and policies to prevent new planting. Here we review the literature on UK peatland afforestation in relation to carbon and climate implications, and identify key issues for future research. The effects of conifer planting on peat bog carbon storage in the UK are poorly understood. A large body of research on peatland forestry exists, particularly from naturally forested fen peatlands in Fennoscandia and Russia, but the different conditions in the UK mean that results are not directly transferable. Data on the responses of UK peat bogs to afforestation are required to address this shortfall. Studies are required that quantify the loss of carbon from the peat and evaluate it against the accumulation of carbon above and below ground in trees, considering the likely residence time of carbon in wood products.

Immediate and long-run impacts of a forest carbon policy—A market-level assessment with heterogeneous forest owners

Sequestering carbon in forests and wood products is an inexpensive way to reduce the atmospheric carbon concentration. However, its full potential is not utilized in present climate policies. Optimizing sequestration, while continuing to harvest wood for materials and energy, could reduce the economic burden of mitigation efforts. Optimal sequestration can be incentivized by subsidizing carbon storage according to its social value. We analyze the dynamic market-level impacts of implementing a forest carbon policy by using the Finnish Forest and Energy Policy model (FinFEP). We find that sizeable and immediate increases in carbon sinks can be obtained, even with low carbon prices. High carbon payments strongly increase the carbon sink in the short run, but this impact diminishes over time. Low payments have a milder but longer-lasting impact. Forest owners’ valuations of forest amenities also affect the magnitude and dynamics of harvest and carbon sequestration results. Thus, a realistic description of forest owner behavior is needed to assess the impacts of forest carbon policies. Moreover, we show that a market-level model is necessary for assessing the regional carbon sequestration impacts and costs. Relying on stand-level models with fixed timber prices may yield overly optimistic results.

Florida Trees Store Carbon in Forests and Wood Products

Trees store carbon as they grow and produce wood. Carbon, and carbon storage in particular, have become important topics as policymakers, scientists, and industry leaders consider how to address the increasing amount of CO2 in our atmosphere. Because it changes the composition of the atmosphere, CO2 is a leading contributor to climate change. Storing carbon in living trees and in long-lasting wood products such as lumber and furniture is one way to reduce atmospheric CO2. Florida’s forest and wood-product industries are worth billions of dollars. Clean water, wildlife, and other benefits add to the value and importance of these forests.

Simulation of forest‐based carbon balances for Germany: a contribution to the‘carbon debt’ debate

The aim of this paper is to estimate the future carbon balance of wood use in Germany combining a national forest inventory data‐driven forest growth model with information about German harvested wood products markets and taking into account material and energy substitution effects. In a scenario analysis, we assess impacts of different forest management options, change of market share of harvested wood products as well as changes of the national energy mix. Additionally, the model settings and assumptions that predominantly determine the results are identified and discussed. The simulation results show that only a radical change of forest management in Germany would cause net carbon emissions. The continuation of current forest management or a higher share of high yield tree species as well as a change of market shares of wood and wood products would result in a net carbon sequestration in German forest and harvested wood products carbon pools. Considering substitution effects, even the net carbon emissions of a radically changed forest management would be over compensated and the carbon balance of all other scenarios would become even more positive. Looking at the most decisive factors regarding our simulation results, the initial treatment of the forest carbon pool, the starting year for the simulations and the present forest structure are most crucial for further accumulated net carbon pool changes. WIREs Energy Environ 2018, 7:e260. doi: 10.1002/wene.260This article is categorized under: Bioenergy > Climate and Environment Energy and Climate > Climate and Environment Energy and Development > Climate and Environment

Long-term influence of alternative forest management treatments on total ecosystem and wood product carbon storage

Developing strategies for reducing atmospheric CO2 is one of the foremost challenges facing natural resource professionals today. The goal of this study was to evaluate total ecosystem and harvested wood product carbon (C) stocks among alternative forest management treatments (selection cutting, shelterwood cutting, commercial clearcutting, and no management) in mixed-species stands in central Maine, USA. These treatments were initiated in the 1950s and have been maintained since, and ecosystem C pools were measured in 2012. When compared across managed treatments, the commercial clearcut had the lowest total ecosystem C stocks by 21%, on average (P < 0.05), while the selection and shelterwood treatments had similar total ecosystem C stocks. Including the C stored in harvested wood products did not influence observed differences in C storage among treatments. Total ecosystem C stocks in the reference stand were 247.0 ± 17.7 Mg·ha−1 (mean ± SD) compared with 161.7 ± 31.3 Mg·ha−1 in the managed stands (171.2 ± 31.7 Mg·ha−1 with products C). This study highlights the impacts of long-term forest management treatments on C storage and indicates that the timing of harvests and the species and sizes of trees removed influence C stored in harvested wood products.

Sustainable Management of Tropical Forests Can Reduce Carbon Emissions and Stabilize Timber Production

The REDD+ scheme of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has provided opportunities to manage tropical forests for timber production and carbon emission reductions. To determine the appropriate logging techniques, we analyzed potential timber production and carbon emission reductions under two logging techniques over a 40-year period of selective logging. We found that use of reduced-impact logging (RIL) techniques alone in tropical production forests could reduce carbon emissions equivalent to 29-50% of net emissions from tropical deforestation and land use change, while also supplying 45% of global round-wood demand. Adopting RIL plus (RIL+) other improvements in forest management (adopting forest certification and DNA timber tracking to prevent illegal logging) and wood conversion practices (adopting technology to increase recovery of sawn wood), would result in increasing long-term carbon storage in sawn-wood and reduce logging-induced fire-prone wood wastes by 14-184%. For this to happen, about US$2 billion or $1.86 per Mg CO2 in financial incentives are needed annually for parties to adopt RIL+ and to prevent premature re-entry logging. Our findings suggest that future climate policies explicitly include RIL+ to satisfy the “sustainable management of forests” proviso in the REDD+ scheme, and also count carbon in wood products as eligible credits for trading.

Forest Carbon Calculators: A Review for Managers, Policymakers, and Educators

Forests play a critical role sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide, partially offsetting greenhouse gas emissions, and thereby mitigating climate change. Forest management, natural disturbances, and the fate of carbon in wood products strongly influence carbon sequestration and emissions in the forest sector. Government policies, carbon offset and trading programs, and sustainable forestry certification programs make it increasingly important that carbon dynamics are incorporated into forest management decisionmaking. Many analytical tools (which we refer to as forest carbon calculators) have been developed to quantify carbon stores and dynamics in the forest sector, but it can be difficult for potential users to know which carbon calculator(s) may be best for any given application. We review 12 forest carbon calculators, providing a classification and synthesis to assist forest managers, policymakers, and educators. Additionally, we discuss key characteristics missing in existing forest carbon calculators that are needed for current and future forest management decisionmaking.

Carbon cycle of larch plantation based on CO2FIX model

Aims Plantations play important roles in modifying regional carbon budget and maintaining regional carbon balance. In this study, we assessed larch plantation (Larix gmelinii var. principis-rupprechtii) carbon dynamics in Weichang County from a perspective of the forest biomass-soil-wood-products chain. Our objectives were to elucidate the carbon sink capacity of larch plantation and the influences of biomass, soil and wood product pools on carbon balance. Methods CO2FIX model was used to evaluate the carbon storage and flow of larch plantation over a time span of 120 years. Input data for model were derived from practical investigations and published papers. We validated the simulated results and found that this model was suitable in the region and the simulated results were reliable. Important findings (1) Soil was the largest carbon pool for larch plantation and the wood product pool had the smallest carbon storage. Meanwhile, carbon storage in wood products gradually increased with time. (2) In a rotation of 50 years from secondary poplar-birch forest to larch plantation, 250 t C·hm was sequestrated by the larch plantation. 70% of the carbon was transferred into soil in the form of litter and logging slash and the other 30% was transferred into wood products. (3) Larch plantation was a carbon sink during most of its growing period and turned to temporary carbon source when it was harvested. Larch plantation could sequestrate about 0.3 t C·hm·a in the long term. Our results indicated the importance of wood product carbon pool in carbon dynamics of plantation, which facilitated our understanding in the carbon dynamics and capacity of plantation.

Wood properties: future needs, measurement and modelling

Wood products differ from other manufactured products by the fact that they originate from raw material developed in forest trees, according to complex biological processes, influenced by environmental conditions and changes. These conditions depend on silviculture, in turn influenced by economic, ecological, and social factors. Forests are an important carbon sink. The subsequent sequestration of carbon in wood products is allowed by the consumption of durable products corresponding to traditional and innovative utilizations. Within this context, one of the main challenges for the current forest-wood research is to bring together the knowledge on how wood properties are developed and can be controlled in forests and the performance required for traditional and emerging end-use wood products. The success as raw material and as manufactured and sometimes complex products requires an improved understanding of wood properties and the capacity of accurately measuring them, both in standing trees and not far to the service conditions, and assembling the successive knowledge along the forest-wood chain in relevant models and simulation tools.

The Carbon Impacts of Wood Products

Abstract Wood products have many environmental advantages over nonwood alternatives. Documenting and publicizing these merits helps the future competitiveness of wood when climate change impacts are being considered. The manufacture of wood products requires less fossil fuel than nonwood alternative building materials such as concrete, metals, or plastics. By nature, wood is composed of carbon that is captured from the atmosphere during tree growth. These two effects—substitution and sequestration—are why the carbon impact of wood products is favorable. This article shows greenhouse gas emission savings for a range of wood products by comparing (1) net wood product carbon emissions from forest cradle–to–mill output gate minus carbon storage over product use life with (2) cradle-to-gate carbon emissions for substitute nonwood products. The study assumes sustainable forest management practices will be used for the duration of the time for the forest to regrow completely from when the wood was removed for product production during harvesting. The article describes how the carbon impact factors were developed for wood products such as framing lumber, flooring, moulding, and utility poles. Estimates of carbon emissions saved per unit of wood product used are based on the following: (1) gross carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from wood product production, (2) CO2 from biofuels combusted and used for energy during manufacturing, (3) carbon stored in the final product, and (4) fossil CO2 emissions from the production of nonwood alternatives. The results show notable carbon emissions savings when wood products are used in constructing buildings in place of nonwood alternatives.

The impact of nitrogen and phosphorous limitation on the estimated terrestrial carbon balance and warming of land use change over the last 156 yr

Abstract. We examine the impact of land use and land cover change (LULCC) over the period from 1850 to 2005 using an Earth system model that incorporates nitrogen and phosphorous limitation on the terrestrial carbon cycle. We compare the estimated CO2 emissions and warming from land use change in a carbon-only version of the model with those from simulations, including nitrogen and phosphorous limitation. If we omit nutrients, our results suggest LULCC cools on the global average by about 0.1 °C. Including nutrients reduces this cooling to ~ 0.05 °C. Our results also suggest LULCC has a major impact on total land carbon over the period 1850–2005. In carbon-only simulations, the inclusion of LULCC decreases the total additional land carbon stored in 2005 from around 210 Pg C to 85 Pg C. Including nitrogen and phosphorous limitation also decreases the scale of the terrestrial carbon sink to 80 Pg C. Shown as corresponding fluxes, adding LULCC on top of the nutrient-limited simulations changes the sign of the terrestrial carbon flux from a sink to a source (12 Pg C). The CO2 emission from LULCC from 1850 to 2005 is estimated to be 130 Pg C for carbon only simulation, or 97 Pg C if nutrient limitation is accounted for in our model. The difference between these two estimates of CO2 emissions from LULCC largely results from the weaker response of photosynthesis to increased CO2 and smaller carbon pool sizes, and therefore lower carbon loss from plant and wood product carbon pools under nutrient limitation. We suggest that nutrient limitation should be accounted for in simulating the effects of LULCC on the past climate and on the past and future carbon budget.

Effects of harvesting on spatial and temporal diversity of carbon stocks in a boreal forest landscape

Carbon stocks in managed forests of Ontario, Canada, and in harvested wood products originated from these forests were estimated for 2010–2100. Simulations included four future forest harvesting scenarios based on historical harvesting levels (low, average, high, and maximum available) and a no-harvest scenario. In four harvesting scenarios, forest carbon stocks in Ontario's managed forest were estimated to range from 6202 to 6227 Mt C (millions of tons of carbon) in 2010, and from 6121 to 6428 Mt C by 2100. Inclusion of carbon stored in harvested wood products in use and in landfills changed the projected range in 2100 to 6710–6742 Mt C. For the no-harvest scenario, forest carbon stocks were projected to change from 6246 Mt C in 2010 to 6680 Mt C in 2100. Spatial variation in projected forest carbon stocks was strongly related to changes in forest age (r = 0.603), but had weak correlation with harvesting rates. For all managed forests in Ontario combined, projected carbon stocks in combined forest and harvested wood products converged to within 2% difference by 2100. The results suggest that harvesting in the boreal forest, if applied within limits of sustainable forest management, will eventually have a relatively small effect on long-term combined forest and wood products carbon stocks. However, there was a large time lag to approach carbon equality, with more than 90 years with a net reduction in stored carbon in harvested forests plus wood products compared to nonharvested boreal forest which also has low rates of natural disturbance. The eventual near equivalency of carbon stocks in nonharvested forest and forest that is harvested and protected from natural disturbance reflects both the accumulation of carbon in harvested wood products and the relatively young age at which boreal forest stands undergo natural succession in the absence of disturbance.

Integrating a process‐based ecosystem model with Landsat imagery to assess impacts of forest disturbance on terrestrial carbon dynamics: Case studies in Alabama and Mississippi

AbstractForest ecosystems in the southern United States are dramatically altered by three major disturbances: timber harvesting, hurricane, and permanent land conversion. Understanding and quantifying effects of disturbance on forest carbon, nitrogen, and water cycles is critical for sustainable forest management in this region. In this study, we introduced a process‐based ecosystem model for simulating forest disturbance impacts on ecosystem carbon, nitrogen, and water cycles. Based on forest mortality data classified from Landsat TM/ETM + images, this model was then applied to estimate changes in carbon storage using Mississippi and Alabama as a case study. Mean annual forest mortality rate for these states was 2.37%. Due to frequent disturbance, over 50% of the forest land in the study region was less than 30 years old. Forest disturbance events caused a large carbon source (138.92 Tg C, 6.04 Tg C yr‐1; 1 Tg = 1012 g) for both states during 1984–2007, accounting for 2.89% (4.81% if disregard carbon storage changes in wood products) of the total forest carbon storage in this region. Large decreases and slow recovery of forest biomass were the main causes for carbon release. Forest disturbance could result in a carbon sink in few areas if wood product carbon was considered as a local carbon pool, indicating the importance of accounting for wood product carbon when assessing forest disturbance effects. The legacy effects of forest disturbance on ecosystem carbon storage could last over 50 years. This study implies that understanding forest disturbance impacts on carbon dynamics is of critical importance for assessing regional carbon budgets.

Simple models of the role of forests and wood products in greenhouse gas mitigation

The exchange of carbon, primarily as the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide, between forests and the atmosphere, gives forest managers opportunities to limit greenhouse gas emissions through forest management. Options available to forest managers to reduce greenhouse gas emissions include 1) storing carbon in landscapes, 2) storing carbon in wood products, and 3) providing society with a low-emissions resource (wood products) to substitute for alternative materials associated with larger emissions. To evaluate the trade-off between storing carbon in forests and providing society with wood products, the dynamics of each option must be understood. Here, the above options are explained using simple models analogous to reservoirs and safes. Reservoirs are used to represent dynamic systems, such as forest and wood product carbon stocks, and the irreversible substitution effect, where emissions are avoided through the use of wood, is shown as analogous to placing avoided emissions in a safe.

Carbon Footprint Assessment of a Paperback Book

SummaryThis study presents the carbon footprint of a paperback book for which the cover and inside papers were produced in the United States and printed in Canada. The choice of paper mills for both cover and page papers was based on criteria such as percentage of recycled content in the pulp mix, transport distances (pulp mill to paper mill, paper mill to print), and technologies. The cradle‐to‐gate assessment of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions follows recognized guidelines for carbon footprint assessment. The results show that the production of 400,000 books, mainly distributed in North America, would generate 1,084 tonnes carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2‐eq), or 2.71 kilograms (kg) CO2‐eq per book. The impact of using deinked market pulp (DMP) is shown here to be detrimental, accounting for 54% of total GHG emissions and being 32% higher than reference virgin Kraft pulp. This supports findings that DMP mill GHG emissions strongly correlate with the carbon intensity of the power grid supplying the pulp mill and that virgin Kraft mills that reuse wood residue and black liquor to produce heat and electricity can achieve lower GHG emissions per tonne of pulp produced. Although contrary to common thinking, this is consistent with the Paper Task Force 2002 conclusion for office paper (the closest paper grade to writing paper or fine paper) (EDF 2002a). To get a cradle‐to‐grave perspective, three different end‐of‐life (EOL) scenarios were analyzed, all of which included a harvested wood product (HWP) carbon storage benefit for 25 years. The GHG offset concept within the context of the book editor's “carbon‐neutral” paper claims is also discussed.

Financial feasibility of increasing carbon sequestration in harvested wood products in Mississippi

Longer forest rotation ages can potentially increase accumulation of carbon in harvested wood products due to a larger proportion of sawlogs that can be used for manufacturing durable wood products such as lumber and plywood. This study quantified amounts of carbon accumulated in wood products harvested from loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) stands grown in Mississippi by extending rotation ages traditionally used to manage these stands for timber. The financial viability of this approach was examined based on carbon payments received by landowners for sequestering carbon in standing trees and harvested wood products. Results indicated a potential to increase carbon accumulated in wood products by 16.11 metric tons (t) of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 2e) per hectare (ha) for a rotation increase of 5 years and 67.07 tCO 2e/ha for a rotation increase of 65 years. Carbon prices of $50/tCO 2e and $110/tCO 2e would be required to provide a sufficient incentive to forest landowners to extend rotations by 5 and 10 years, respectively. With 2.8 million ha of loblolly pine stands in Mississippi, this translates to a possible increase in wood products carbon of 45 million tCO 2e and 80 million tCO 2e for harvest ages increased by 5 and 10 years, respectively. Higher carbon prices lengthened rotation ages modestly due to low present values of carbon accumulated with long rotations.

Long-term management impacts on carbon storage in Lake States forests

We examined carbon storage following 50+ years of forest management in two long-term silvicultural studies in red pine and northern hardwood ecosystems of North America’s Great Lakes region. The studies contrasted various thinning intensities (red pine) or selection cuttings, shelterwoods, and diameter-limit cuttings (northern hardwoods) to unmanaged controls of similar ages, providing a unique opportunity to evaluate long-term management impacts on carbon pools in two major North American forest types. Management resulted in total ecosystem carbon pools of 130–137 Mg ha −1 in thinned red pine and 96–177 Mg ha −1 in managed northern hardwoods compared to 195 Mg ha −1 in unmanaged red pine and 224 Mg ha −1 in unmanaged northern hardwoods. Managed stands had smaller tree and deadwood pools than unmanaged stands in both ecosystems, but management had limited impacts on understory, forest floor, and soil carbon pools. Total carbon storage and storage in individual pools varied little across thinning intensities in red pine. In northern hardwoods, selection cuttings stored more carbon than the diameter-limit treatment, and selection cuttings generally had larger tree carbon pools than the shelterwood or diameter-limit treatments. The proportion of total ecosystem carbon stored in mineral soil tended to increase with increasing treatment intensity in both ecosystems, while the proportion of total ecosystem carbon stored in the tree layer typically decreased with increasing treatment intensity. When carbon storage in harvested wood products was added to total ecosystem carbon, selection cuttings and unmanaged stands stored similar levels of carbon in northern hardwoods, but carbon storage in unmanaged stands was higher than that of thinned stands for red pine even after adding harvested wood product carbon to total ecosystem carbon. Our results indicate long-term management decreased on-site carbon storage in red pine and northern hardwood ecosystems, but thinning intensity had little impact on carbon storage in red pine while increasing management intensity greatly reduced carbon storage in northern hardwoods. These findings suggest thinning to produce different stand structures would have limited impacts on carbon storage in red pine, but selection cuttings likely offer the best carbon management options in northern hardwoods.

Carbon storage potential of harvested wood: summary and policy implications

Within national greenhouse gas inventories, many countries now use widely-accepted methodologies to track carbon that continues to be stored in wood products and landfills after its removal from the forest. Beyond simply tracking post-harvest wood carbon, expansion of this pool has further been suggested as a potential climate change mitigation strategy. This paper summarizes data on the fate of carbon through the wood processing chain and on greenhouse gas emissions generated by processing, transport, use and disposal of wood. As a result of wood waste and decomposition, the carbon stored long-term in harvested wood products may be a small proportion of that originally stored in the standing trees—across the United States approximately 1% may remain in products in-use and 13% in landfills at 100 years post-harvest. Related processing and transport emissions may in some cases approach the amount of CO2e stored in long-lived solid wood products. Policies that promote wood product carbon storage as a climate mitigation strategy must assess full life-cycle impacts, address accounting uncertainties, and balance multiple public values derived from forests.

Spruce budworm and management effects on forest and wood product carbon for an intensively managed forest

An integrated forest management optimization model was developed to calculate potential spruce budworm ( Choristoneura fumiferana Clemens) effects on forest and wood product carbon (C) from 2007 to 2057 and to evaluate potential C sequestration benefits of alternative management strategies (salvage, biological insecticide application). The model was tested using simulated spruce budworm outbreaks on a 210 000 ha intensively managed forest in northwestern New Brunswick, Canada. Under a severe spruce budworm outbreak scenario from 2007 to 2020, harvest volume and forest and wood product C storage in 2027 were projected to be reduced by 1.34 Mm3, 1.48 Mt, and 0.26 Mt, respectively, compared with the levels under no defoliation. Under the same severe outbreak scenario, implementation of salvage and harvest replanning plus a biological insecticide applied aerially to 40% of susceptible forest area, reduced harvest, forest C, and wood product C impacts by 73%, 41%, and 56%, respectively. Extrapolation of these results to all of New Brunswick suggests that a future severe spruce budworm outbreak could effectively increase total provincial annual C emissions (all sources) by up to 40%, on average, over the next 20 years. This modeling approach can be used to identify to what extent insecticide application, as a forest-C-offset project, could result in additional C storage than without forest and pest management.