Capita Water Research Articles

Analysis of digital information Management of product market competition under the environment of agricultural product e-commerce

With the rapid development of China's regional agriculture, its consumption of energy, the squeezing and encroachment of the environment and the pollution of the ecological environment have been put on the agenda, which stems from the unreasonable management and regulation of the rapidly developing agricultural infrastructure. Aiming at the evaluation index cluster of agricultural management in Northeast China, the main structure of the digital information management platform of green ecological agriculture we built is divided into variable layer, middle layer and evaluation index layer, which is a superimposed and progressive layer structure design.The results show that compared with 2018, the use index of electronic agricultural products, per capita greening index, soil organic matter content index and per capita water content index increased by 30.34%, 6.14%, 25.34% and 30.26% respectively in 2019.The index of per capita desert land area decreased by 10.97%.The Sustainability Index experienced an unusual decrease in 2017-2018, with a drop of 0.08. Compared with 2018, the green ecological index from 2019 to 2021 increased by 5.94%, 8.58% and 12.87% respectively. This provides guidance for the structure and design of China's future agricultural development.

Decadal Change in Ground Water Utilization Pattern in West Bengal, India

This research article is meant to highlight the topic present ground water utilization scenario of West Bengal, India. Contribution of irrigation structures for different minor irrigation censuses, irrigation potentiality, cropping pattern with the development of irrigation over time and the extent of use of ground water resources have included in the study. Secondary data on irrigation potentiality, cropping pattern, minor irrigation censuses over times has been assembled from Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) (Eastern Region), State water investigation directorate (SWID) and area on different crops is from the official statistics published time to time by public sources. In the study area, it has been found that utilizable water is much less than available water. The availability of surface water is more than groundwater. Gap between water demand and availability is more in southern districts of West Bengal. Per capita water available is decreasing as the population is increasing. In both the cases of culturable command area and gross irrigated area, irrigation through the surface water sources has shown negative growth rate.

Analysis of the Water Footprint of Central and Eastern Europe Countries

The article presents an analysis of the water footprint of five Central and Eastern European countries, i.e. Poland, Slovakia, Lithuania, Ukraine and Belarus. The first three are members of the European Union, the other two are not. These countries also differ in terms of climate. The green, blue and grey water footprints of crop production, grazing, animal water supply, industrial production and domestic water supply are analysed. The per capita water footprint is also calculated. It is the highest for the countries of the former Soviet Union, that is Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania, and half as low for Poland and Slovakia. In the case of virtual water, Poland dominates in the area of import, and Ukraine in export. The index of the net import of virtual water is unfavourable for Ukraine and Lithuania and is much more positive for Poland and Belarus. When calculated per capita, the net import of green virtual water is the highest for Belarus (340 m3/person/year) and Poland (148 m3/person/year). A positive value of this index was also recorded for Slovakia and negative for Lithuania and Ukraine (-282 m3/person/year). Taking into account the exposure of the southern Ukraine steppe to water stress, this is not a favourable situation for greater export of virtual water than its import.

Assessment of water consumption in households using statistical analysis and regression trees

• Statistical analysis and Regression Trees were applied to analyze water consumption. • Construction characteristics and resident-related variables were considered. • Water consumption was influenced by socioeconomic aspects. • Building age and construction characteristics significantly impact water consumption. Understanding the drivers of water consumption is essential for effective water resources management. This paper evaluates how socioeconomic and demographic variables, construction characteristics and behavioral aspects of residents influence domestic water consumption in the city of Joinville, Southern Brazil, analyzing data from 394 households. Statistical analysis and Univariate Regression Trees were applied to the data set. The results show that the average per capita consumption is 143.67 L/person/day, while the average household monthly water consumption is 14.53 m³/household/month. Amidst the findings in the statistical analysis, socioeconomic aspects such as number of residents, income and presence of children in the household showed an effect on water consumption, as well as building age and typology, number of bathrooms and presence of a bathtub and a swimming pool. The regression trees allowed identifying that the number of residents and area per capita are the variables with greater importance to estimate household and per capita water consumption, respectively. As a key implication of this study, the analysis presented herein provides additional empirical support for the body of knowledge on the factors that influence residential water consumption and can help decision-makers to direct actions and public policies aimed at water conservation in the built environment.

Fresh Water Use in Florida: Trends and Drivers

Water quality and quantity are critical issues as the Florida’s population grows. This paper analyzed water use regionally (central, north, and south Florida) as well as in rural and urban areas in Florida from 2005 to 2015 using three indicators (total water use, agriculture water use, and per capita water use). Eight (8) water-consuming categories, such as aquaculture, livestock, irrigation, public supply, thermoelectric power, mining, industrial self-supply, and domestic self-supply, were considered for total water use. Per capita water use used public supply category and agricultural water use used aquaculture, livestock, and irrigation categories. Linear regression analysis was used to observe the relationship between population and water use. The highest water use was recorded in south Florida, while the lowest was in north Florida. Water use per capita was higher in urban areas. Irrigation water use was higher among the eight water use categories. Many drivers influencing Florida water use were identified through literature review and causal loop diagram was developed. Some (e.g., household size, land use/land cover change, urbanization, agriculture, population, income, climate change, tourism, and industry) may cause an increase in water use, while others (e.g., pricing systems, conservation methods, education, and technology) may cause a decrease in water use. Overall, this research addresses the need of understanding water use trends and the drivers affecting those trends, which are important to determine whether a water conservation plan is needed.

Inverted Algorithm of Groundwater Storage Anomalies by Combining the GNSS, GRACE/GRACE-FO, and GLDAS: A Case Study in the North China Plain

As the largest groundwater drainage region in China, the per capita water resources in the North China Plain (NCP) account for only one-seventh of the country’s available water resources. Currently, the NCP is experiencing a serious water shortage due to the overexploitation of groundwater resources and a subsequent series of natural disasters. Thus, accurate regional assessments and effective water resource management policies are of critical importance. To accomplish this phenomenon, the daily terrestrial water storage anomaly (TWSA) over the NCP is calculated from the combination of the GNSS vertical deformation sequences (seasonal items) and GRACE (trend items). The groundwater storage anomaly (GWSA) in the NCP is obtained by subtracting the canopy water, soil water, and snow water equivalent components from the TWSA. The inversion results of this study are verified by comparisons with the Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS) data products. The elevated annual amplitude areas are located in Beijing and Tianjin, and the Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC), root mean square error (RMSE), and Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) between the two GWSA results are 0.67, 4.01 cm, and 0.61, respectively. This indicates that the methods proposed in this study are reliable. Finally, the groundwater drought index was calculated for the period from 2011 to 2021, and the results showed that 2019 was the driest year, with a drought severity index value of −0.12, indicative of slightly moderate drought conditions. By calculating and analyzing the annual GWSA, this work shows that the South–North Water Transfer Project does provide some regional drought mitigation.

Analysis of Climate Change Impacts on the Food System Security of Saudi Arabia

Climate change poses a challenge to the security and long-term viability of the global food supply chain. Climate unpredictability and extreme weather events have significant impacts on Saudi Arabia’s vulnerable food system, which is already under stress. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia faces distinct challenges in comparison to other dry locations across the world. Here, the per capita water demand is high, the population is growing, the water resources are extremely limited, and there is little information on the existing groundwater supplies. Consequently, it is anticipated that there will be formidable obstacles in the future. In order to make data-driven decisions, policymakers should be aware of causal links. The complex concerns pertaining to the Saudi Arabian food system were analyzed and rationally explained in the current study. A causality analysis examined different driving factors, including temperature, greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, population, and gross domestic product (GDP) that cause vulnerabilities in the country’s food system. The results of the long-run causality test show that GDP has a positive causal relationship with the demand for food, which implies that the demand for food will increase in the long run with an increase in GDP. The result also shows that Saudi Arabia’s GDP and population growth are contributing to the increase in their total GHG emissions. Although the Kingdom has made some efforts to combat climate change, there are still plenty of opportunities for it to implement some of the greatest strategies to guarantee the nation’s food security. This study also highlights the development of appropriate policy approaches to diversify its import sources to ensure future food security.

Study on the Measures for Optimizing China’s Provincial Territorial Space Based on the Perspective of Resource and Environmental Carrying Capacity in the New Situation

The comprehensive resource and environment carrying capacity (RECC) evaluation is an important method for measuring the rationality of the population, resource, and environment allocation, which is an important scientific guidance for scientific research and the judgment of regional economic and social development potential and the optimization of the national land spatial pattern. This paper constructs a comprehensive evaluation index system of the RECC under the new situation of climate policy and high-quality economic development; it analyzes the factors influencing the RECC, the overall level, the spatial difference, and the carrying status by using the TOPSIS model based on the entropy weight method, and it identifies the shortcomings; then, it analyzes the characteristics of regional dynamic change and sustainable development trend, and finally, it simulates the optimal spatial pattern under the scenario simulated by the FLUS model. The conclusions are as follows: ① the resource factors have the greatest influence on the carrying capacity of the resources and the environment, followed by economic factors. Among them, per capita water resources, forest coverage rate, and health institutions have the highest impact on RECC. ② The overall level of comprehensive RECC from 2015 to 2020 shows an upward trend, and although the positive impact of resource-led provinces on the level of economic development power and RECC is greater than the negative one, the environmental support is the shortcoming of the future development of the regional economy. ③ The overall spatial performance of RECC is characterized as being high in Guanzhong, second in northern Shaanxi, and low in southern Shaanxi. The northern area of Yulin in the Guanzhong Plain City Cluster, which is an important national energy chemical base, is the core of the national-level urbanization development areas, and the northern area of the Guanzhong Plain City Cluster is the key choice of the provincial-level urbanization development areas. The area along the west bank of the Yellow River in the Qinba Mountain area in southern Shaanxi and the Baiyu Mountain area in northern Shaanxi can be positioned as national key ecological function areas.

Comprehensive comparison and assessment of three models evaluating water resource carrying capacity in Beijing, China

Water supply is one of the most critical factors for food security in many parts of the world, and the balance of water supply and demand ensures the sustainability of water resources. The water resources carrying capacity (WRCC) can effectively evaluate the state of sustainable development of water resources. Taking Beijing, which is severely lacking in water resources, as an example, the five-element subtraction set pair potential, logistic, and Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution evaluation models (TOPSIS) were comprehensively compared and assessed to identify a more suitable method for water resource assessment. The results indicate that Beijing's WRCC score substantially improved from 2010 to 2018. The overall WRCC of Beijing has improved from the perspective of the carrying subject subsystem, and this has been particularly evident since 2014. The change of quantity and quality index in the quantity-quality-water bodies-flow index layer was the main reason for the increase in Beijing's WRCC. The South-to-North Water Transfer Project had a major impact on the changes in the quantity and quality index layers, which was reflected most distinctly in the measures of per capita water resources and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) emissions per 10,000 yuan. From the perspective of carrying object, Beijing’s carrying capacity has improved significantly since 2013. In terms of utilization and social development, water consumption per 10,000 yuan of GDP and the proportion of tertiary industry are important factors affecting WRCC. Of the evaluation results of the three models, the results of the five-element subtraction set pairing evaluation model exhibited the highest accuracy. The results may also reflect the indicator status to a certain extent, and the results were more consistent with Beijing's WRCC. This study accurately identified the advantages and disadvantages of various indicators of WRCC by comparing different models and provided a reference for the formulation of Beijing's regulation measures for the sustainable development of water resources and food security.

Spatial inequality of domestic water consumption in Mexico city

Achieving equal access to drinkable water whilst guaranteeing no discrimination constitutes a priority goal and an acquired compromise for the international agenda. However, achieving this goal has become challenging, especially in megacities. Mexico City registers 94% coverage of water supply, according to the 2020 Population and Housing Census. In 2019, per capita water consumption was 123 l/day, a supply reasonable as it is above the 100 l/day recommended by the World Health Organization to guarantee optimal access to water. However, water consumption among households is characterized by a heterogeneous spatial distribution that denotes a great inequity. The objective of this research is to evaluate the configuration of the spatial patterns that define the differences in water consumption in Mexico City's households, as well as their association with possible causal factors. This task was carried out through the spatial analysis and the use of geographic information systems. The water consumption records correspond to the year 2019 and were provided by the city's operating utility. Results confirmed the existence of two clusters of households whose location highlight areas where inequality in water consumption is present. The clusters are explained by the interaction of four factors, in order of importance: discontinuous water supply; dependence on external water sources; altitude; and the socioeconomic status of the neighborhoods. The results provide a fundamental basis for the development of water policies to mitigate inequality. Also, a methodological approach is provided to investigate water problems in large cities in developing countries, where the available literature is scarce. • Spatial analysis demonstrates the existence of a spatial distribution pattern of household consumption in Mexico City. • In Mexico City there are three clusters that show inequality in domestic water consumption. • Consumption water inequalities are mainly due to the influence of socioeconomic, demographic and drinking water supply factors.

Managing Agricultural Water Use in a Changing Climate in China

The United Nations predicts that over 40 % of the world's population (3.9 billion) would suffer from severe water deficiency by 2050, indicating that global water disequilibrium and deficiency will intensify, creating challenges for national and regional water supplies. With per capita water resources at a quarter of the world average level, China is one of the most water-scarce countries. Employing a single stage Stochastic Frontier Analysis, this paper studies the impact of climate change induced fluctuation in temperature and precipitation on agricultural water (AW) use efficiency in China and addresses its volatility and regional disparity over time and across region. We utilize fine-scale meteorological factors including temperature, precipitation, crop growing degree days and crop harmful degree days to proxy the changing climate condition. Our results reveal temperature-related climate change factors such as average annual temperature, crop growing degree days and crop harmful degree days demonstrate the negative impacts on AW use efficiency, and the decline in precipitation due to climate change lowers AW use efficiency. More importantly, we find that when the information on climate damage is provided to farmers, the negative effect of climate change on AW use efficiency can be alleviated. Furthermore, we conclude that the North China Plain, Southwest and Northeast regions with shortages of water endowment have the best AW use efficiency, followed by the Yangtze River Basin and the Northwest region. The South Coast region with ample water sources has the poorest performance. We therefore conclude that AW use efficiency in China is affected by climate change, with heterogeneous impacts across regions. Policy implications on risk management are drawn to enable better adaptation to climate change in agricultural water use.

Assessing adaptability of the water resource system to social-ecological systems in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region: Based on the DPSIR-TOPSIS framework

To optimize the overall layout of water resource allocation in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, the adaptability of the water resource system to the regional social-ecological systems has to be enhanced. Based on the driver-pressure-state-impact-response (DPSIR) framework, this study constructs an evaluation index system to analyze the adaptability mechanisms of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei’s water resource system according to the three major constituent social-ecological systems (i.e., economic, social, and ecological systems). Moreover, it adopts the technique of order preference similarity to the ideal solution (TOPSIS) to comprehensively evaluate the adaptability of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei’s water resource system based on three constituent social-ecological systems (i.e., economic, social, and ecological systems) and identifies the spatiotemporal differentiation characteristics of the region. Our results showed that, ① from 2000 to 2020, the adaptability of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei’s water resource system, as a whole, significantly improved. In terms of stages, from 2000 to 2007, the adaptability of the water resource social system was significantly higher than that of economic and ecological systems in the region. From 2008 to 2015, by accelerating the transformation and upgrading of industrial structures, improving the efficiency of economic water utilization, and strengthening the governance of the water ecosystem, the adaptability of water resource economic and ecological systems rapidly improved; however, that of the water resource ecological system was still the lowest. Additionally, the adaptability of the water resource economic system exceeded that of the social system. From 2016 to 2020, the gap in adaptability of the water resource system to all three major constituent systems gradually narrowed. By 2020, the three systems entered a relatively balanced development stage, with the adaptability of the entire water resource system and the three major constituent systems maintaining a high level. ② The economic system was significantly affected by per capita GDP, per capita water resources, and the efficiency of economic water utilization. Additionally, the social system was significantly affected by water consumption per unit of irrigation area. Meanwhile, the ecological system was significantly influenced by precipitation, water pollution discharge performance indicators, and the structure optimization indicators of water supply. According to the evaluation results, we propose countermeasures and provide recommendations to optimize the overall layout of water resource allocation and promote the coordinated management of water resources in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region.

An investigation of domestic water consumption in Sirte, Libya

ABSTRACT The paper investigates per capita water consumption in Sirte city using a questionnaire survey data. The data captured included frequency, duration, flow rate, time of water use for each water end-use and household characteristics (demographic and socio-economic). The results show that the average daily per capita water consumption is 255 l/p/d. The per capita water consumption decreases with the increase in family size, while household income does not affect water consumption. Handwash basin tap accounts for the highest water consumption. The diurnal water consumption pattern is different from developed countries patterns and has multiple peaks. To predict the city’s future water demand, three statistical models based on multiple linear regression technique (STEPWISE) were developed. The comparison of the developed models suggests that the models based on demographic variables can produce acceptable results and any further inclusion of additional variables (physical characteristics of households) do not necessarily improve the prediction accuracy.

Evaluation of spatial variation of water resources carrying capacity using optimal method: a case study of Fujian, China.

Studying regional water resources carrying capacity (WRCC) is an important guarantee for realizing regional sustainable development. Previous evaluation of WRCC mainly focused on the construction of the index system and the optimization of multiattribute decision analysis methods (MDAMs). The selection of the weighting assignment method (WAM) is a key link in the evaluation of WRCC, but different WAMs may bring different results, which brings challenges to the actual WRCC evaluation. Therefore, this paper proposes a WAM selection framework, under which WRCC evaluation index system is firstly constructed. Secondly, from the four objective WAMs, the most suitable WAM is identified and selected to evaluate WRCC in Fujian Province in terms of the reliability and stability of the evaluation results. In addition, the main factors affecting regional WRCC are discussed using the obstacle degree model. The results show that (1) under the same evaluation index system, the CRITIC method was the suitable method with more reliability and stability than the coefficient of variation method, the entropy method, and the equal weight method. (2) The higher water resources carrying capacity (level I) is mainly located in the west of the study area, and the lower one (level V) is located in the east coast. (3) The superimposition effects ecological water use rate, water production modulus, acreage water consumption of farmland irrigation, per capita water resources, and COD emissions hindering the level of regional WRCC. The framework proposed in this study can provide methodological options for quantitative evaluation of WRCC. The results of this paper provide favorable support for decision makers to carry out rational planning of resources.

The Environmental Kuznets Curve at the thermoelectricity-water nexus: Empirical evidence from Spain

Energy and water are essential resources for ensuring economic growth. Both sectors are closely interrelated. Electricity generation is one of the most water-intensive activities worldwide and the cooling of thermoelectric power stations represents one of the largest uses of water within the energy sector. This study provides evidence on the existence of an Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) for water withdrawal at the thermoelectricity sector in Spain, one of the most arid countries in Europe, for the period 1970–2019, using the ARDL model. Our results show a direct relationship between per capita income and water withdrawal until an estimated turning point is reached. In the Spanish case, further development has led to a reduction in water needs for the following reasons: 1) the use of less water-intensive cooling systems, 2) changes in generation technology.

Assessment of coupling coordination degree and water resources carrying capacity of Hebei Province (China) based on WRESP2D2P framework and GTWR approach

• A multi-system multi-layer theoretical framework is proposed for the first time. • Sustainable development measures was selected as indicators. • Improved TOPSIS model is used to evaluate the water resources carrying capacity. • Standard deviation ellipses were applied to analyze the WRCC orientation. • WRCC and GTWR model are combined for the first time. Water resources system (WRS), socio-economic system (SES) and Ecological environment system (EES) are systems closely related to the sustainable development of cities. It is crucial to accurately evaluate the Water resources carrying capacity (WRCC) and the Coupling coordination degree (CCD) among the systems for sustainable development. The paper proposed a conceptual framework of Water Resources Endowment-Support-Pressure-Development-Destructiveness-Protection-Promotion(WRESP2D2P) and constructed an index system with 20 indicators. The improved TOPSIS model and Geographic spatiotemporal weighted model (GTWR) were applied to evaluate the water resources carrying capacity and analyze the key factors affecting the WRCC. Findings showed that (1) CCD in 11 cities of HBP are in a state of reluctant coordination from 2011 to 2018. (2) Although the Water resources carrying capacity index(WRCCI) of 11 cities is increasing, Water resources carrying capacity grade(WRCCG) of most cities are in Grades III and IV, which is in a state of critical carrying state and slight overload. (3) Spatially, the distribution pattern of WRCC of HBP changes from Northeast to Southwest. (4) The factors affecting WRCC have spatial and temporal heterogeneity. (5) The per capita water resources is the most dominant factor affecting the WRCC in HBP. The study proposed a multi-system, multi-layer index system, aiming to provide a scientific basis for urban sustainable natural resources management.

Comprehensive Evaluation of Water–Energy–Food System Security in the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor

The safety of the water–energy–food (WEF) system in the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is critical to the sustainable development of resources, the economy, and society in the region. This paper uses the projection pursuit model of a real-code accelerated genetic algorithm (RAGA-PP) to comprehensively evaluate the WEF system security of the CPEC for the period 2000–2016. The results show that from 2000 to 2016, the projection value of the WEF system was reduced from 2.61 to 0.53, and the overall system security showed a downward trend. Moreover, the CPEC increased by 6.13 × 107 people, resulting in a rapid decrease in per capita water resources and decreased security of the water resources subsystem. With the rising social and economic development in recent years, the per capita energy consumption has likewise risen, leading to a decline in the energy subsystem. At the same time, the per capita grain output in the study area has increased from 185 to 205 kg, and the safety of the food subsystem has been enhanced. However, the significant increase in irrigated areas (from 1.82 × 1010 to 1.93 × 1010 hectares) has further highlighted the contradiction between the supply and demand of surface water resources, and the number of tube wells increased by 7.23 × 105, resulting in the consumption of a large amount of electricity and diesel resources. The water–energy (WE) subsystem also became less safe. With the implementation of water resources management policies over the past few decades, the proportion of agricultural water consumption dropped from 95.06% in 2000 to 93.97% in 2016, and the safety of the water–food (WF) subsystem increased. Unfortunately, agricultural irrigation consumes a large amount of power resources, leading to a reduction in the security of the energy–food (EF) subsystem. The research results from the present study could provide a scientific basis for the coordinated development of WEF systems across the CPEC region.

The effect of reducing per capita water and energy uses on renewable water resources in the water, food and energy nexus

This study assesses the feedbacks between water, food, and energy nexus at the national level with a dynamic-system model, taking into account the qualitative and quantitative environmental water needs. Surface and groundwater resources are considered jointly in the water resources subsystem of this dynamic system. The developed model considers the effects of reducing the per capita use water and energy on its system’s components. Results indicate that due to feedbacks the changes in per capita uses of water and energy have indirect and direct effects. About 40% of the total water savings achieved by the per capita change policy was related to energy savings, in other words, it is an indirect saving. Implementation of per capita use reductions compensates for 9% of the decline of Iran's groundwater reservoirs (non-renewable resources in the short term) that occur during the five-year study period. The Manageable and Exploitable Renewable Water Stress Index (MRWI) corresponding to water and energy savings equals 214.5%, which is better than its value under the current situation (which is equal to 235.1%).

Adapting Strategies for Water Supply Management to Climate Change in Nzoia River Basin, Kenya

Climate change is influencing the hydrological cycle on a global scale, and enhancing communities' ability to adapt to these changes is critical for long-term growth and survival. Climate change is expected to have a negative influence on water resources and supply. Other water stresses, such as population expansion, land-use change, growing per capita water demand, and regulatory changes, frequently exacerbate the consequences of climate change. Mitigation will not be enough to minimise the significant repercussions on the water industry, especially in poor nations. The study adopted a cross-sectional survey design. Three counties were randomly selected from Nzoia River Basin for study with Busia representing the lower catchment, Kakamega middle catchment and Trans Nzoia upper catchment. The study was carried out from May, 2017 to September, 2017.A carefully selected team of water and climate change experts consisting of decision makers, practitioners, managers, scientists, technology adopters and other stakeholders were used to identify the five main climate change challenges affecting water supply management in Nzoia River Basin (water scarcity and drought, flooding, water quality effects, unknown climate change risks and disaster preparedness) and the accompanying strategies and technologies for adapting water supply management to climate change through questionnaires, in-depth expert-interviews, brainstorming sessions, field observations and literature review. The adaptation strategies and technologies identification exercise drew from multiple sources of information including the national context where national development plans were used; adaptation technologies proposed in previous documents; technologies currently in use and supported by national water policy; initiatives in the pipeline under the larger water sector; appropriateness of technologies in the local context and the social acceptability among other sources. Stakeholder engagement helps to foster local ownership and buy-in, which is often necessary for long-term project viability. The study has also assessed the level of implementation for the adaptation strategies and the agencies involved. The adaptation strategies were identified and ranked using the total weighted scores as follows: Water storage, Water efficiency and demand management, Water augmentation, Alternative water sources, Water allocation, Urban storm water management, Riverine flood protection, Hazard and risk assessment, Vulnerability assessment, Disaster response, and Early warning. The Total weighted scores under ranking are very close to each other, implying that all the strategies/technologies listed for adapting water supply management to climate change are good. The results of this study provide valuable information that can be used by national and county governments in adapting water supplies to climate change.

Decoupling of Water Production and Electricity Generation from GDP and Population in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Countries

Although the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries are in an arid region with limited water resources, the per capita water and electricity consumptions are high, at 560 L/capita/day and 7000–18,000 kWh/year, respectively. Although macroscale parameters (e.g., GDP and population) have been assumed to be correlated with water and electricity demand, this study aims to verify whether this assumption still holds true. As opposed to the previous literature, this study reveals that, although water production and electricity generation had been correlated with GDP and population for years, they have been decoupled from these macroscale parameters since 2015. Such decoupling can be explained by the three phases of economic development. In the initial stage, GDP and population growth promoted rapid increases in water and electricity demands, which came down in the second stage as the consumers became satisfied with water and electricity supplies. In the third stage, the water and electricity demands were decoupled from GDP and population due to demand-management policies for environmental protection and cost saving, combined with consumers’ efforts, such as water-saving faucets and energy efficiency in homes, which indicates that microscale parameters have become more influential on water and electricity demands than macroscale parameters.