Hydrogen Production Capacity Research Articles

Minimization of Construction and Operation Costs of the Fuel Cell Bus Transportation System

This paper took the actual bus transportation system as the object, simulated the operating state of the system, replaced all the current diesel engine buses with fuel cell buses using electrolysis-produced hydrogen, and completed the existing timetable and routes. In the study, the numbers of hydrogen production stations and hydrogen storage stations, the maximum hydrogen storage capacity of the buses, the supplementary hydrogen capacity of the buses, and the hydrogen production capacity of the hydrogen storage stations were used as the optimal adjustment parameters for minimizing the ten-year construction and operating costs of the fuel cell bus transportation system by the artificial bee colony algorithm. Two hydrogen supply methods, decentralized and centralized hydrogen production, were analyzed. This paper used the actual bus timetable to simulate the operation of the buses, including 14 transfer stations and 112 routes. The results showed that the use of centralized hydrogen production and partitioned hydrogen production transfer stations could indeed reduce the construction and operating costs of the fuel cell bus transportation system. Compared with the decentralized hydrogen production case, the construction and operating costs could be reduced by 6.9%, 12.3%, and 14.5% with one, two, and three zones for centralized hydrogen production, respectively.

Technical sizing of renewable energy capacity for large-scale green hydrogen production

The endeavor to produce 100 tons/day of green hydrogen in Morocco is a target with multifaceted challenges. The size of renewable energy and the electrolysis process constitute major parameters requiring advanced technology and robust infrastructure. The sensitivity analysis of this study involves critical parts of the value chain including the installed capacity, cost-effectiveness, storage, load balance, and resource allocation necessary to achieve the targeted green hydrogen. In the base case scenario (PV:562MWp, Wind:456Mw, EZ:273Mwe, storage:7.4 tons), the analysis reveals the optimal and effective technical sizing of the installed capacity ensuring a reliable energy supply and the load factor of the electrolysers indicates efficient balance of the produced energy, while the minimal requirement for hydrogen storage underscores economic viability. However, in the case of sensitivity scenario case 1 (PV:562MWp, Wind:647Mw, EZ:337Mwe, storage:420 tons), putting high capacities into renewable energies leads to excess energy production, requiring valorization strategies. Although the use of the grid as a storage mechanism is limited and compliant with regulations, a significant need for hydrogen storage is noted to resolve intermittency issues. Quite similar observations in the sensitivity scenario case 2 (PV:562MWp, Wind:290Mw, EZ:256Mwe, storage:1.7 tons) reinforces the project's robustness, with optimized wind production profiles and reduced investment needs facilitated by grid storage capacity.

High-Pressure Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell (SOEC) for Enhanced P2X Efficiency

As green energy emerges as a pivotal solution for replacing traditional fossil fuels, efficient power storage methods become crucial. Wind and solar energy sources have the potential to meet global energy demands multiple times over. However, their intermittent nature necessitates a fundamental reassessment and redesign of our energy infrastructure. Power-to-X (P2X) technologies offer a promising avenue for converting renewable electricity into other usable forms. Hydrogen, produced via electrolysis and stored, is one such example. High-temperature solid oxide cells (SOC), which can function as both electrolysis cells (SOEC) and fuel cells (SOFC), represent a highly efficient technology for this purpose. By 2030, SOEC are anticipated to play a pivotal role in electrolysis, driven by their high electrical efficiency, reduced material costs, and dual functionality as fuel cells. However, SOEC face challenges such as limited stack lifetime and restricted cell size. A novel operational approach for SOEC, termed 'AC:DC', has emerged as a promising solution to overcome these challenges. The AC:DC method involves superimposing an alternating current (AC) on a direct current (DC), facilitating intermittent operation in fuel cell mode. Tests conducted on SOECs have demonstrated that AC:DC can prolong lifespan by mitigating temperature fluctuations and enhancing impurity tolerance through electrochemical oxidation/reduction processes. Increasing the operational pressure of SOEC from ambient pressure to 5 bar can result in a 50% reduction in capital expenses (CAPEX) for balance-of-plant equipment such as heat exchangers, pipes, and compressors. Moreover, operating at high pressure enables greater hydrogen production capacity for SOEC. In summary, our objective is to develop a setup for conducting SOEC cell testing under elevated pressure (up to 5 bar) using AC:DC operation. This includes presenting the preliminary design of the setup and conducting experimental investigations. Additionally, we discuss the dynamic SOEC operations during testing from a system perspective.To conduct dynamic operational tests under elevated pressure, a pressure vessel must be designed and integrated into the system. The gas inlet is consisted of air, H2O, H2 and N2. The flow rate of H2 can be adjusted from 0-50 L/h, while air and N2 can be adjusted from 0-300 L/h to clean and provide a safety atmosphere inside the pressure vessel. The normal H2O flow rate is set to 20 μL/min. Heat up process for the furnace is set to 1.5 °C/min, from room temperature (25 °C) to 700 °C, which is the working temperature for SEOC, due to rapid heat ramp will cause uneven distribution on the SOEC, resulting in the waste of energy as well as the degradation of SOEC. The furnace structure, consists of layers starting with an Inconel housing bearing a nickel catalyst welded on top. H2O is supplied to the anode through a central hole, while unreacted gas combusts out the housing sides. The catalyst undergoes grinding between cell exchanges to ensure optimal contact and reaction.The SOEC cell used for the test is a commercial cell based on the basic materials of nickel/YSZ for cathode, YSZ for electrolyte, LSC for air electrode. The measurements are under safety gas atmosphere. The fuel electrode needs to be heated up under N2 atmosphere to prevent it from oxidation. The current collector, a gold mesh, is positioned over the exposed air electrode. Alumina silica felt serves as the insulation material. Thus far, the development of a vessel for elevated pressure testing of SOEC has been successfully completed. To assess the feasibility of the setup, 5% H2 was applied to a cell used for validating and operated it as a SOFC. Open-circuit-voltage (OCV) measurements were conducted at various temperatures to assess the feasibility of the setup within the pressure vessel. At 700 °C, the OCV reached 1.12 V, which corresponds to the standard value. After validation of the system, the water pump and power were connected and ran the cell as SOEC mode. The IV curve of the SOEC is obtained under 700 °C, as shown in Fig.1.In conclusion, a high-pressure vessel for SOEC is successfully designed, aimed at enhancing SOEC efficiency and extending its lifetime. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy will be performed in the future work, combining with an optimization of different frequency of AC: DC profile, and validating by long-term test and post-mortem analysis. Therefore, the degradation mechanisms, such as nickel migration and poisoning from impurities will be fully discussed. Moreover, conducting tests on large stacks with thermocouples inserted throughout the stack volume could help elucidate the limitations of electrothermally balanced operation concerning stack size. Figure 1

Interactions and distortions of different support policies for green hydrogen

This paper explores various policies to support climate-neutral hydrogen production, focusing on their interaction with energy markets and cap-and-trade systems such as the EU emission trading scheme. We develop and deploy a state-of-the-art equilibrium model to examine the effect of hydrogen support policies on the interactions between hydrogen, electricity and emission markets. Our analysis shows that mechanisms remunerating hydrogen production can distort spot prices of electricity and hydrogen more strongly than mechanisms that remunerate hydrogen production capacity. Hydrogen support mechanisms furthermore promote renewable electricity production and deter investment in conventional generation assets. The associated decrease in emissions in the power sector leads to an increase of emissions in the industrial and hydrogen sector due to the waterbed effect in the EU emission trading scheme. Our case study on an emission-capped area inspired by the EU shows that the operational distortions that production-based mechanisms exhibit, typically increase costs more than the investment distortions that capacity-based mechanisms entail.

Study on the methanol aqueous phase reforming performances over Pt/CeO2 catalysts: The effect of CeO2 morphologies and oxygen vacancies

CeO2-supported catalysts have been extensively studied for hydrogen production via aqueous phase reforming of methanol (APRM) although several issues remain unclear, such as the influence of different morphologies on catalytic performance and the role of their oxygen vacancies in enhancing hydrogen yield. In this study, CeO2 with three distinct morphologies were synthesized, and platinum was loaded onto these supports via a photoreduction method to produce highly-dispersed catalysts designated as Pt/CeO2-R (rod-shaped), Pt/CeO2-C (cubic) and Pt/CeO2-O (octahedral) respectively. A series of APRM experiments suggested that Pt/CeO2-R exhibited the highest hydrogen production capacity (146.2 mmol-H2/gcat.). This superior performance is likely to attribute to the highly-dispersed Pt on the rod-shaped CeO2 support, which provides a substantial number of active metal sites, promoting the efficient adsorption and activation of methanol throughout the process. The anchoring effect of platinum on support surface and redox properties of Pt species were also thoroughly investigated with various characterization techniques. Further analysis revealed a strong correlation between turnover frequency (TOF) and the presence of oxygen vacancies on Pt/CeO2. Notably, abundant oxygen vacancies on catalyst enhanced substrate adsorption and the rapid conversion of CO* intermediates adsorbed on platinum, which accelerated the water-gas shift (WGS) reaction through a faster redox pathway, leading to higher hydrogen production with low CO selectivity.

Coordinated planning for offshore wind and electricity–hydrogen system based on SDDP: A case study of coastal provinces in China

The coordinated development of offshore wind and electricity–hydrogen systems (OW-EHS) has the potential to enhance the utilization of renewable energy sources and achieve carbon neutrality. This article presents a case study of nine coastal provinces in China and designs four scenarios to analyze the economic benefits and potential hydrogen production capacity of OW-EHS. A multi-stage stochastic dual dynamic programming based approach is proposed for integrating OW-EHS, exploring offshore wind energy as both a primary electricity source for coastal regions and a clean, sustainable energy source for electrolyzers. It accounts for variations in hydrogen demand, wind uncertainty, load profiles, and electricity price dynamics, offering a holistic perspective on the feasibility and benefits of collaborative offshore wind and electricity–hydrogen systems. A comparative analysis highlights the effectiveness of the proposed planning approach, demonstrating its capacity to maximize the overall system benefits, encompassing both the optimal levelized cost of energy and hydrogen production. The new discoveries elucidate the unique attributes and advantages of each coastal province in OW-EHS. This research provides a tailored blueprint for coastal provinces in China to harness their offshore wind potential and accelerate progress towards carbon neutrality.

Spatial feasibility prediction of green hydrogen scale-up in China under decarbonization policies: Based on improved diffusion model

Hydrogen production from renewable electrolysis is a suitable transformative technology for driving a cleaner energy mix, mitigating climate change, and achieving sustainable development and has been given the color value definition of "green hydrogen". However, this low-carbon technology is still in its infancy, and the pathways for expanding market supply have not been analyzed. To address the problems of unclear factors influencing the diffusion of green hydrogen technology innovation, unclear technology diffusion laws, and inaccurate predictions of regional green hydrogen production capacity under the goal of decarbonization policy, this work constructs a spatial assessment framework of the feasibility of low-carbon technology development in response to climate change on the basis of the theory of technological innovation systems, the improved technology diffusion model, and the feasibility of climate change spatial concepts to analyze and predict the diffusion law and regional green hydrogen production capacity of hydrogen production by renewable energy under the goal of carbon neutrality. The results of the study on the development of renewable hydrogen technology in China show that it follows the law of diffusion of low-carbon technologies in both the formation and growth stages. The diffusion of green hydrogen technology in the formation stage is slow, and the regional green hydrogen capacity in the near term cannot meet the decarbonization policy target demand in 2030. Before the spatial inflection point of technology diffusion feasibility, the demand-pull of the phase decarbonization policy target dominated the stability and sustainability of the green hydrogen supply market. After the inflection point, the internal growth of technology diffusion plays a key role in market diffusion and ultimately reaches a saturation value under the joint regulation of policy and the market to realize a carbon-neutral target capacity demand in 2060. The uncertainty of diffusion model parameters leads to anomalies in the feasibility space of technology diffusion, and risks such as overcapacity or insufficient demand in some regions may occur. Overall, this work provides a systematic assessment system for analyzing and predicting the pathways and characteristics of expanding renewable hydrogen production in specific regions under decarbonization policy objectives.

New insights into microalgal photobiological hydrogen production: Potential role of aggregation forms in modulating the hydrogenase activity and metabolic properties of microalgae during hydrogen production

Photobiological hydrogen production of microalgae is highly influenced by environmental conditions, and the appropriate microalgal aggregation form is conducive to microalgae overcome environmental limitations and increase their hydrogen production capacity. In this study, the effects of three aggregation methods including self-flocculation, biofilm attachment, and gel immobilization on the photobiological hydrogen production of both prokaryotic Synechocystis sp. and eukaryotic Chlamydomonas reinhardtii were investigated. The results indicated that microalgal aggregates formed via gel immobilization exhibited superior physicochemical properties such as porosity, integrity, and oxygen diffusion coefficients, creating favorable conditions for enhanced hydrogenase activity. Upon gel-immobilization, hydrogen production of Synechocystis sp. and C. reinhardtii exhibited an increase of 1.89 and 2.02-folds, respectively, compared with suspended microalgae. Concurrently, hydrogenase activities increased to 2.07 and 32.9 H2/(mg chlorophyll·h), respectively. The gel-immobilized aggregate form prompted the microalgae to maintain a relatively high photosynthetic activity, with the electron transfer rate reaching more than 1.58 folds of the control. Notably, three aggregated forms also accelerated oxygen consumption, and intracellular organic matter degradation, thereby optimizing electron utilization by microalgal hydrogenase. Furthermore, aggregation up-regulated hydrogenase gene expression in both species, particularly in gel-immobilized groups (2.34- and 4.14-folds increase compared with the control for Synechocystis sp. and C. reinhardtii, respectively). Subsequently, significantly upregulated gene expression related to oxidative phosphorylation and antioxidant systems was observed in C. reinhardtii aggregates, correlating with its relatively higher increase in hydrogen production compared with Synechocystis sp. aggregates. This study elucidated the mechanism by which aggregation strengthens microalgal hydrogen production and offers insights crucial for its industrialization.

Nickel doped enhanced LaFeO3 catalytic cracking of tar for hydrogen production

The transformation of biomass into green energy was pivotal for sustainable development, yet the efficient conversion of biomass-derived tar into hydrogen-rich syngas remained a significant challenge. This study addressed the catalytic demand for hydrogen production from tar, focusing on the development of LaNixFe1-xO3 perovskites as catalysts. A series of LaNixFe1-xO3 perovskites with varying nickel doping levels (x=0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1) were synthesized to evaluate their catalytic performance in converting toluene, a representative tar component, into hydrogen. The LaNi0.5Fe0.5O3 catalyst demonstrated the highest hydrogen yield (14.5 L/6 h) and volume percentage (82.9 V/V%), highlighting the optimal nickel doping level for enhancing hydrogen production. The hydrogen production performance of LaNixFe1-xO3 was significantly affected by nickel doping. In particular, a small amount of nickel doping can significantly enhance the hydrogen production capacity of LaFeO3 and maintain good reaction stability. The enhanced performance was attributed to the high oxygen storage capacity of perovskite, which facilitated the removal of surface carbon and promotes the methanation reaction. Notably, the total content of defect oxygen and surface adsorbed oxygen/hydroxyl groups significantly impacted the hydrogen production efficiency. These findings indicated that LaNi0.5Fe0.5O3 was an effective catalyst for converting biomass-derived tar into hydrogen-rich syngas, offering a promising solution to the catalytic demand in the hydrogen production system.

Fire safety characteristics of natural gas with hydrogen admixture

The increasing pressure to decarbonise energy production leads to the need to use low or zero carbon fuels or energy carriers. One of the promising fuels of the future is hydrogen, which is carbon-free if renewable energy sources are used for its production. However, the capacity for hydrogen production is currently insufficient to make it applicable on a large scale. Adding hydrogen to natural gas allows for a reduced carbon footprint without costly modifications to pipeline distribution network. However, changing the composition of gas in transport and distribution facilities requires a thorough assessment of the impact on operational safety. Fire safety of flammable mixtures is commonly assessed on the basis of explosive limits and other parameters. Although methods are available to calculate these parameters based on the composition of the mixtures being evaluated, the final safety assessment should rely on actual measured values. The scope of this work is to determine the explosion limits of natural gas from the transit system and changes in the limits caused by the addition of hydrogen at the concentration levels of 10% and 20% (v/v). Obtained experimental results were further compared with theoretically calculated values. Attention was also paid to the change in maximum explosion pressure, maximum pressure rise rate and oxygen concentration limits (LOC). As a result, valuable data on the expansion of the explosion limits of natural gas after the addition of hydrogen are presented.

Potentials of Green Hydrogen Production in P2G Systems Based on FPV Installations Deployed on Pit Lakes in Former Mining Sites by 2050 in Poland

Green hydrogen production is expected to play a major role in the context of the shift towards sustainable energy stipulated in the Fit for 55 package. Green hydrogen and its derivatives have the capacity to act as effective energy storage vectors, while fuel cell-powered vehicles will foster net-zero emission mobility. This study evaluates the potential of green hydrogen production in Power-to-Gas (P2G) systems operated in former mining sites where sand and gravel aggregate has been extracted from lakes and rivers under wet conditions (below the water table). The potential of hydrogen production was assessed for the selected administrative unit in Poland, the West Pomerania province. Attention is given to the legal and organisational aspects of operating mining companies to identify the sites suitable for the installation of floating photovoltaic facilities by 2050. The method relies on the use of GIS tools, which utilise geospatial data to identify potential sites for investments. Basing on the geospatial model and considering technical and organisational constraints, the schedule was developed, showing the potential availability of the site over time. Knowing the surface area of the water reservoir, the installed power of the floating photovoltaic plant, and the production capacity of the power generation facility and electrolysers, the capacity of hydrogen production in the P2G system can be evaluated. It appears that by 2050 it should be feasible to produce green fuel in the P2G system to support a fleet of city buses for two of the largest urban agglomerations in the West Pomerania province. Simulations revealed that with a water coverage ratio increase and the planned growth of green hydrogen generation, it should be feasible to produce fuel for net-zero emission urban mobility systems to power 200 buses by 2030, 550 buses by 2040, and 900 buses by 2050 (for the bus models Maxi (40 seats) and Mega (60 seats)). The results of the research can significantly contribute to the development of projects focused on the production of green hydrogen in a decentralised system. The disclosure of potential and available locations over time can be compared with competitive solutions in terms of spatial planning, environmental and societal impact, and the economics of the undertaking.

International trade of green hydrogen, ammonia and methanol: Opportunities of China's subregions

Global initiatives to reduce carbon emissions are stimulating the demand for green hydrogen, ammonia and methanol. By 2023, the total low-carbon hydrogen production capacity from announced projects worldwide is projected to reach 38 million tonnes. China is experiencing a surge in green hydrogen projects, with a growing number targeting international markets in addition to domestic demand. This study delves into a systematic modeling analysis to uncover the pivotal roles that China's subregions can play in shaping the future global trade of green hydrogen, ammonia, and methanol. Utilizing a dynamic programming model, complemented by an array of supply chain models for detailed cost estimations, the study highlights the unique advantages and vast potential of subregional engagement in both domestic and international trade. Furthermore, the research explores the essential infrastructure demands and assesses the impact of renewable energy costs and policy shifts on the evolving trade landscape.

Assessing the impact of hydrogen trade towards low-carbon energy transition

Hydrogen is increasingly recognized as a pivotal commodity in the low-carbon energy transition, bridging regional disparities in hydrogen production capacity and facilitating international energy trade. Existing research has yet to delve into the impact of global hydrogen trade on energy transitions, as well as the key factors driving the development of hydrogen trade. This study, utilizing the updated GCAM-TU model, which mainly extends the original Global Change Analysis Model (GCAM) with a hydrogen trade module, provides a multi-scenario outlook on the characteristics of hydrogen trade and its impact on global and regional energy transition. The findings indicate that by 2050, the global hydrogen trade volume is expected to reach 9-19EJ, accounting for a quarter of the global hydrogen consumption in different scenarios, with green hydrogen trade dominating due to its cost advantages. Pipeline hydrogen and ammonia shipping will govern the trade market, representing 33%–61% and 24%–64% of trade volume, respectively, while liquid hydrogen shipping holds an advantage for medium distances. Hydrogen trade is projected to increase global hydrogen demand by 1.2–5.3EJ and reduce hydrogen prices by 11%–36% in the European Union, Japan, and South Korea, thereby expanding their hydrogen consumption by 8%–55% and reducing regional carbon prices by 1%–6%. Moreover, hydrogen trade significantly alters the regional distribution of global hydrogen production, with major exporting regions such as North and East Africa increasing their hydrogen production for export by up to 150%. To facilitate the development of hydrogen and hydrogen trade, it is crucial for potential importing and exporting regions to enhance global financial and technological cooperation, develop key hydrogen production and transportation technologies, and retrofit existing nature gas infrastructure to reduce costs. Additionally, forming stable trade partnerships is essential for maintaining energy security in the hydrogen trade.

Regional Disparities and Strategic Implications of Hydrogen Production in 27 European Countries

This study examines hydrogen production across 27 European countries, highlighting disparities due to varying energy policies and industrial capacities. Germany leads with 109 plants, followed by Poland, France, Italy, and the UK. Mid-range contributors like the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and Belgium also show substantial investments. Countries like Finland, Norway, Austria, and Denmark, known for their renewable energy policies, have fewer plants, while Estonia, Iceland, Ireland, Lithuania, and Slovenia are just beginning to develop hydrogen capacities. The analysis also reveals that a significant portion of the overall hydrogen production capacity in these countries remains underutilized, with an estimated 40% of existing infrastructure not operating at full potential. Many countries underutilize their production capacities due to infrastructural and operational challenges. Addressing these issues could enhance output, supporting Europe’s energy transition goals. The study underscores the potential of hydrogen as a sustainable energy source in Europe and the need for continued investment, technological advancements, supportive policies, and international collaboration to realize this potential.

A novel Al/BiCl3/γ-Al2O3 composite for small-sized fuel cell: Fabrication, performance and mechanisms

Small-sized fuel cell is an ideal and promising power source for portable devices due to its long-term electricity supply and free of CO2 emission. However, its commercialization is obstructed by reliable hydrogen source, which should be non-corrosiveness, as compact as possible, stable and controllable high purity hydrogen supply. In this study, a novel in situ hydrogen production material Al/BiCl3/γ-Al2O3 composite is synthesized, which exhibits high hydrogen yield, fast hydrogen production rate and outstanding storage stability. The hydrogen production performance of Al/BiCl3/γ-Al2O3 can be adjusted by changing BiCl3:γ-Al2O3 weight ratio, additive content and milling time. XRD and SEM results indicate that surface cracks, active surface and metal Bi produced in fabrication process lead to the high hydrolysis activity of Al/BiCl3/γ-Al2O3. Mechanism analyses reveal that hydrogen production process is the results of pitting, microgalvanic effect and catalytic effect. Taking into account hydrogen production performance, capacity and cost, Al/5 wt%BiCl3/5 wt%γ-Al2O3 milled for 2 h is a potential hydrogen production material, which can in situ supply hydrogen for small-sized fuel cell.

Enhancement of TiO2‐Based Composite With Low Carbon‐Based Component Ratio for Improved Hydrogen Generation via Photocatalytic Water Splitting

AbstractComposite between titanium dioxide (TiO2) and (reduced) graphene oxide (R(GO)) was prepared using a two‐stage solvothermal synthesis with variable R(GO) mass ratios (0.01–5 wt.%). Partial reduction of the precursor solution of GO to RGO took place during the solvothermal synthesis at the elevated pressure and temperature conditions. The structural, morphological, and semiconducting characteristics of the obtained binary composites were determined and their capacity of hydrogen production via photocatalytic water splitting in the presence of triethanolamine (TEOA) as sacrificial agent under the simulated solar light irradiation was tested. Photocatalytic experiments have showed that even low mass ratios of R(GO) component (below 1 wt.%) can have a great influence on the photocatalytic activity and properties of the obtained material. The results showed that even a partial reduction of GO to RGO had a positive impact on the photocatalytic properties of the as‐prepared materials. The composite with 0.05 R(GO) wt.% achieved the highest H2 generation rate of 139 μmol/h/g and maintained high photostability. The incorporation of R(GO) into the TiO2 matrix enhanced efficient charge separation, reduced the energy bandgap (Eg), and thus increased the visible light response (ΔE), leading to more effective hydrogen production.

(Invited) Growing Production Capacity in PEM Electrolysis: Learnings and Technical Accomplishments

Development of hydrogen production capacity with low carbon intensity (low carbon dioxide emissions) is an essential part of reaching global sustainability targets and mitigating long term climate change. While electrolysis has been commercial for decades, many applications have been smaller scale, and only a small fraction of the total hydrogen production is made from water rather than methane. In the US, there have also now been 7 Hubs selected which each have minimum targets of 50 metric tons of low carbon hydrogen production per day. The only way to meet these capacities in the near term is with proven commercial technologies such as liquid alkaline and proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis. However, even though PEM technology has been commercial for decades, it has only recently reached megawatt scale, and most “gigafactories” that have been announced are not completely built out or staffed for these demands. It is therefore essential that PEM developers scale manufacturing capacity of cell stacks significantly in the next few years.Experience in commercial installations, manufacturing, and previous scale up are critical to success. Nel Hydrogen US has successfully scaled up cell stack active area by almost 2 orders of magnitude from its earliest products, and has gained decades of real world experience in how different field operation can be from controlled internal tests. The smaller platforms also offer built in verification testing for new designs and manufacturing methods. This talk will discuss Nel’s stack scale up journey, as well as updates on current expansion efforts.

Spatial and temporal evolution of cost-competitive offshore hydrogen in China: A techno-economic analysis

China's ascendancy as the premier offshore wind power developer and principal hydrogen consumer underscores the expanding demand for green hydrogen, which is vital to its decarbonization trajectory. Offshore wind power is recognized as a crucial pathway for the future supply of green hydrogen, and further exploration of its development potential and economic viability can provide important insights for optimizing resource allocation, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and ensuring energy security. This study analyzed the potential and regional economic differences in offshore wind energy for hydrogen production in China's coastal regions by considering the temporal evolution of techno-economic parameters and the spatial and temporal characteristics of geospatial resources. The findings suggest a potential hydrogen production capacity of 434–493 Mt/year in Chinese waters, with the average levelized cost of hydrogen projected to decline from 7.13 $/kgH2 in 2025 to 3.77 $/kgH2 by 2050, which is attributed to advancements in wind turbine technology and cost reductions in components. By 2030, hydrogen production of 40 Mt/year is expected to be cost-competitive, especially in Liaoning and Hebei, with projections indicating an increase to 435 Mt/year by 2050. Notably, floating wind power, contributing to 54 % of China's total offshore hydrogen capacity, holds significant promise for provinces such as Guangdong, Hainan, and Zhejiang. The study conclude that China's offshore hydrogen production has significant potential, with cost-competitive production achievable by 2030 and broad economic viability anticipated by 2050.

Modeling and design of a combined electrified steam methane reforming-pressure swing adsorption process

Steam methane reforming (SMR) is the most widely used hydrogen (H2) production method, converting natural gas and steam into H2 and carbon dioxide (CO2). SMR is a mature industrial technology that burns fossil fuels to provide heat to the endothermic reforming reaction and to generate steam, which contributes to the production of greenhouse gas emissions. In order to reduce heating-based emissions, an electrically-heated steam methane reforming process has been proposed. Conventional SMR uses a packed bed catalyst and receives heat through radiation from hot flames in the surrounding furnace; on the other hand, an electrified SMR employs a washcoated catalyst, and is resistively-heated through the wall of the reactor coil. To gain further insight into the scalability of hydrogen production processes using electrically-heated reformers, this paper takes experimental data from an electrified reformer built at UCLA, extracts kinetic parameters, and uses these parameters to model and scale up a hydrogen production plant with a hydrogen production capacity of 231 kg/h (2607 Nm3/h). The simulated plant includes a reformer, two water gas shift reactors, pressure swing adsorption (PSA) for separation, and a heat exchange network to make steam for the reformer. A two-column-PSA process is dynamically modeled to output 99% H2 purity, and the pressures necessary for separation and H2 recovery are calculated using steady-state simulation data. A sensitivity analysis is conducted for the most energy-efficient H2 production conditions (e.g., operating pressure, heat flux), and CO2 production amounts are compared to a conventional SMR process, demonstrating that electrified SMR can potentially be a significantly cleaner alternative. The optimization of electrified reformers must target high mass and heat transfer along the full length of the reformer to achieve near full methane conversion that will minimize off-gas generation from the PSA unit.

An Analysis of Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Electrolysis for Certifying Clean Hydrogen

The drive for carbon neutrality has led to legislative measures targeting reduced greenhouse gas emissions across the transportation, construction, and industry sectors. Renewable energy sources, especially solar and wind power, play a pivotal role in this transition. However, their intermittent nature necessitates effective storage solutions. Green hydrogen and ammonia have gained attention for their potential to store renewable energy while producing minimal emissions. Despite their theoretical promise of zero greenhouse gas emissions during production, real-world emissions vary based on system configurations and lifecycle assessments, highlighting the need for detailed evaluations of their environmental impact. Therefore, in this study, calculations were performed for the actual amount of produced greenhouse gas emissions that are associated with the production of green hydrogen using electrolysis, from raw material extraction and processing to hydrogen production, with these assessed from well-to-gate emission estimates. Emissions were also evaluated based on various types of renewable energy sources in South Korea, as well as hydrogen production volumes, capacities, and types. Using these data, the following factors were examined in this study: carbon dioxide emissions from the manufacturing stage of electrolysis equipment production, the correlation between materials and carbon dioxide emissions, and process emissions. Current grades of clean hydrogen were verified, and the greenhouse gas reduction effects of green hydrogen were confirmed. These findings are significant against the backdrop of a country such as South Korea, where the proportion of renewable energy in total electricity production is very low at 5.51%. Based on the domestic greenhouse gas emission efficiency standard of 55 kWh/kgH2, it was found that producing 1 kg of hydrogen emits 0.076 kg of carbon dioxide for hydropower, 0.283 kg for wind power, and 0.924 kg for solar power. The carbon dioxide emissions for AWE and PEM stacks were 8434 kg CO2 and 3695 kg CO2, respectively, demonstrating that an alkaline water electrolysis (AWE) system emits about 2.3 times more greenhouse gasses than a proton exchange membrane (PEM) system. This indicates that the total carbon dioxide emissions of green hydrogen are significantly influenced by the type of renewable energy and the type of electrolysis used.