Cane Technique Research Articles

Yielding Behavior of Turning Drivers to a Pedestrian With a Cane at Low-Light Signalized Intersections

Introduction: This study evaluated drivers’ delays and yields when making right turns at the onset of a circular green traffic signal, in response to pedestrian behaviors, during daylight and at night with streetlamp lighting, in urban and suburban locations. Methods: Researchers conducted trials at three intersections, two typical urban and one typical suburban intersection. Driver movement data were collected (N = 302) in three conditions: no pedestrian present (control); a pedestrian displaying a cane; and a pedestrian flagging a cane. Driver delay was recorded in seconds from the onset of the green traffic signal to when the vehicle crossed the middle of the width of the pedestrian's crosswalk. Results: The primary result was that there are no statistical differences between day and night driver delay. Secondarily, statistically significant differences were found for urban versus suburban drivers when flagging the cane versus displaying the cane, with urban sites and flagging a cane garnering greater delays. Yield calculations, based on the time required for a pedestrian to nearly clear the first half of the crosswalk, confirmed the patterns of drivers’ behaviors. Discussion: Authors anticipated negative effects on yielding in nighttime lower-light environments; however, there was similar driver delay and yields compared to daylight hours. Greater driver delay and yields, for flagging a cane and at urban settings, confirmed the results in previous studies. Implications for Practitioners: When assessing travel options, informed pedestrians and orientation and mobility specialists can consider the effectiveness of active cane techniques to increase the likelihood of yields from turning drivers, even at night where streetlamp lighting is the source of illumination. When instructing cane techniques for use at crosswalks, specialists can consider the options for mitigating risk when crossing typical streets in urban and suburban areas.

White Cane-Type Holdable Device Using Illusory Pulling Cues for Orientation & Mobility Training

For visually impaired people, a white cane is an important aid for obtaining information about the surrounding environment. Although the visually impaired should attend this training by orientation & mobility (O&M) specialists to learn proper cane technique, the number of specialists is limited. In our previous study, we developed a training system that enabled the visually impaired to learn white cane techniques using illusory pulling cues. In the previous prototype system, a cane grip-type device was developed with a built-in vibrator to generate asymmetric vibration stimuli, and illusory pulling cues were fed according to the position of the cane tip. Although the prototype system showed positive results, issues related to the lack of user-friendliness of the device associated with the wired drive and the impractical gripping method were observed. This study developed a more practical white-cane-type device for O&M training, envisioning independent training for the visually impaired, which improved the above-mentioned issues. Specifically, the device was wireless and had a vibration mechanism for the gripping method of the general cane technique, and its validity was demonstrated by evaluation experiments. In addition, the paper explains the usefulness of the device as per discussion with active O&M specialists. The results of the evaluation experiments indicated that the devices were implemented to satisfy the requirements for cane training.

Assessment of the effects of white cane variables on step symmetry of blind individuals.

Step symmetry is an important feature of human gait and is often regarded as a key index of healthy individuals' walking. This study evaluated the effects of height, white cane technique, and cane tip on symmetrical gait in blind individuals. Twenty blind and ten sighted subjects, aged 15-38 years, participated in this study. The harmonic ratio (HR) and improved HR (iHR) were measured by trunk accelerometer as gait symmetry index in three axes: anteroposterior (AP), vertical, and mediolateral of the body. These parameters were measured in the sighted group in open-eye conditions and in the blind group in five experimental conditions with different two heights (standard and long), two tips (pencil and roller), and two techniques (two-point touch and constant contact) of white cane when they walked in the 6-m path. There was a significant difference between HR and iHR of the blind and sighted group, which indicates a significant reduction of symmetry loss in the blind group. Among the five different conditions studied in the group of blind people, an increase was observed in the HR and the iHR on the AP axis during the application of a standard cane with a roller tip, which indicated an increase in symmetry. Based on the results, a long cane with a pencil tip and a standard cane with a roller tip in the constant contact technique can increase step symmetry.

Orientation and Mobility Assessments for Children and Youths With Visual Impairments: How, Why, When, and Where?

Introduction: This study analyzed survey responses from 114 orientation and mobility (O&M) specialists regarding the content and procedures they used in completing O&M assessments. Methods: O&M specialists completed an online survey in 2020 on their assessment practices for children and youths who are visually impaired. Results: Over 85% of participants identified that they interview the student, parent, classroom teacher, and teacher of students with visual impairments as part of the assessment. The only visual skills addressed by at least 80% of participants were depth perception, distance acuity, scanning, and peripheral visual fields. Students without additional disabilities in kindergarten through 12th grade were more likely to be taught the two-point touch cane technique when compared to students with additional disabilities, who were more likely to be taught constant contact. Discussion: Participants identified that O&M assessments for students in 9th–12th grade were more likely to focus on skills that would be needed for employment or post-secondary education or both, such as the use of public transportation. For students with additional disabilities or children under the age of five years, participants were more likely to conduct assessments focused on safety and immediate needs and environments. Implications for Practitioners: Appropriate O&M assessments need to be conducted in natural environments that provide equal challenges to the environments where students need to travel. O&M specialists must adapt the assessment content and procedures to address the current and future travel needs of all students with visual impairments.

Training System for White Cane Technique Using Illusory Pulling Cues Induced by Asymmetric Vibrations.

A white cane is conventionally used by visually impaired persons to assist their mobility. To learn its proper operation, training by an orientation & mobility specialist is necessary. However, because the number of specialists is limited, visually impaired persons often do not receive sufficient training. To rectify this issue, a training environment in which the visually impaired can train independently is required. This paper proposes a training system that enables the visually impaired to learn white cane techniques using illusory pulling cues. Specifically, in the white cane touch technique, which is a basic white cane technique, a system that targets the swing width of the white cane is presented by illusory pulling cues. To verify the efficacy of the system, a prototype was implemented and evaluated via user tests. The results confirmed that the error of the swing width of the white cane decreased following use of the proposed system. The proposed system will contribute to the development of the mobility of the visually impaired by enabling them to train with the white cane independently and spontaneously, thereby reducing the workload of specialists.

Implement of the Training System for White Cane Technique using Haptic Illusion

Implement of the Training System for White Cane Technique using Haptic Illusion

Implement of the Training System for White Cane Technique using Haptic Illusion

Implement of the Training System for White Cane Technique using Haptic Illusion

Obstacle Detection with the Long Cane: Effect of Cane Tip Design and Technique Modification on Performance

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of cane tip design and cane technique modification on obstacle detection performance as they interact with the size, height, and position of obstacles. A repeated-measures design with block randomization was used for the study. In experiment one, participants attempted to detect obstacles with either a marshmallow tip or a bundu basher tip. In experiment two, participants were asked to detect obstacles using either the constant-contact technique or a modified constant-contact technique. As predicted, the obstacle detection rate with the bundu basher tip (M = 66.1%, SD = 7.4%) was significantly higher than that with the marshmallow tip (M = 54.6%, SD =6.8%), F(1, 11) = 24.19, p < .001, r = .83. However, contrary to our hypothesis, the obstacle detection rate with the modified constant-contact technique (M =56.0%, SD = 7.4%) was significantly lower than that with the constant-contact technique (M = 61.3%, SD = 5.2%), F(1, 13) = 6.49, p = .024, r = .58. In addition, participants detected the obstacles that were positioned at the center of their walking path (M = 61.9%, SD = 6.6%) at a significantly higher rate than those positioned slightly off to the side (M = 55.4%, SD = 7.3%), F(1, 13) =10.73, p = .006, r = .67. A bundu basher tip was more advantageous than the marshmallow tip for detecting obstacles. Given the findings of the study, cane users and orientation and mobility (O&M) specialists should consider using or recommending a bundu basher tip (or a similar tip that has an increased contact area with the walking surface), particularly when the traveling environment often presents unexpected obstacles that may trip the cane user.

Competencies of Students with Visual Impairment in using the White Cane in their Learning Environment: a Case Study at Wenchi Senior High in Ghana

Purpose: This study investigated the competencies of students with visual impairment at Wenchi Senior High School, Ghana, in familiarising themselves with their learning environment using the cane. Method: A case study design was adopted for the study. A mixed method approach was utilized in this study. A quantitative approach was used to assess students’ competencies in using the cane while qualitative approach was adopted to probe challenges related to using the cane. Results: Students had reached higher stages on the Conscious Competence Matrix and were by and large competent in using the white cane in their learning environment. However, personal and environmental factors were marring their progress. The personal factors included difficulties with fine motor skills and onset of blindness. The external factors were lack of mobility trainers and canes, as well as barriers within the physical environment. There is generally a positive correlation between onset of visual impairment and specific cane skills. Conclusion and Implications: It is recommended that resource persons devote more time to developing the competencies of students in cane techniques, especially in skills related to identification of obstacles. Modifying the physical environment, as well as providing more canes and additional mobility trainers, will be useful in facilitating the movement of visually impaired students within the school. Limitations: A major limitation is the lack of objective assessment of residual vision and motor impairment. Residual vision likely played a crucial role during the competency test.

The Effect of the Color of a Long Cane Used by Individuals who Are Visually Impaired on the Yielding Behavior of Drivers

Introduction A new market trend offers long canes for individuals with visual impairments in a variety of colors; however, the impact of these colors is unknown to orientation and mobility (O&amp;M) specialists and individuals who are blind or who have low vision. The authors examined the impact of cane color on drivers’ yielding behaviors; also, cane display effectiveness was assessed. Methods At traffic signal–controlled intersections, drivers’ yielding responses (yield–no yield and seconds to crosswalk) were recorded by two raters when a pedestrian presented one of two conditions (display and flagging) with four differently colored long canes (white, black, yellow, and green). Results In trials where the pedestrian used a flagging cane technique, the white cane achieved 290% more yielding than the green cane, 100% more yielding than the yellow cane, and 40% more yielding than the black. Statistical differences were found between the white-with-red cane and the yellow and green canes. The measure of drivers’ latency for moving forward was not statistically different between trials in which a pedestrian displayed a white cane at the crosswalk and trials in which no pedestrians were present. Discussion Cane color appears to have a substantial effect on drivers’ yielding responses. The results also indicate only a slight driver response to a highly visible cane display, confirming the results of previous studies that recommended more potent pedestrian movements to mitigate the threat from turning vehicles. Implications for practitioners O&amp;M specialists and cane travelers need to consider the options for cane color when using a cane to cross streets. A white cane, flagged at the onset of the walk signal, can achieve more desirable responses from drivers than can the long canes of other colors. More effective cane behaviors exhibited by pedestrians who are visually impaired should always be considered by O&amp;M instructors in order to influence drivers.

Drop-off detection with the long cane: effect of cane shaft weight and rigidity on performance

Most travellers who are blind rely on a long cane to detect drop-offs on their walking paths. We examined how different cane shaft materials affect drop-off detection performance through providing different vibrotactile and proprioceptive feedbacks to the cane user. Results of the study showed a significant interaction between cane shaft weight and how the cane is used. A heavier cane was advantageous for detecting drop-offs when the individual used the ‘constant contact technique’ – cane tip stays in contact with the walking surface at all times – but not when he used the ‘two-point touch technique’ – cane tip is rhythmically tapped on the surface. In addition, a more flexible cane was advantageous for detecting drop-offs when the two-point touch technique was used but not when the constant contact technique was used. It is recommended that, when blind individuals select a cane shaft material, they consider which long cane technique they use more often.Practitioner Summary: Long cane shaft material affects how well a blind individual can detect drop-offs. A heavier shaft was advantageous when using the constant contact technique (cane tip stays in continuous contact with the surface), while a more flexible shaft was better when using the two-point touch technique (cane tip rhythmically taps the surface).

Travel in Adverse Winter Weather Conditions by Blind Pedestrians: Effect of Cane Tip Design on Travel on Snow

Winter weather creates many orientation and mobility challenges for people who are visually impaired (Couturier & Ratelle, 2010; Welsh & Wiener, 1976). Snow cover obscures familiar tactile clues, makes it more difficult to manipulate the long cane, and alters one's cane-based perception of the surroundings (Wall, 2001). Getting the cane tip stuck is one of the noticeable challenges when traveling in snow, particularly when the walking surface is covered in deep snow (Couturier & Ratelle, 2010; Welsh & Wiener, 1976). Having one's long cane get stuck may cause more frequent stops and starts, thereby increasing the time required to complete a given route. Such frequent stops and starts may also result in more steps being taken to cover a given distance which, in turn, may contribute to increased veering (Kallie, Schrater, & Legge, 2007). In addition, it appears that sticking can cause a traveler to veer from and can force the traveler's body to unintentionally turn from the intended line of travel (R. Savage, personal communication, April 2, 2015; M. Weessies, personal communication, April 2, 2015; S. Williams-Riseng, personal communication, December 10, 2014). Furthermore, cane sticking may cause frustration to the traveler by frequently disrupting a rhythmic cane swing (M. Ainsworth, personal communication, February 1, 2015; M. Jimenez, personal communication, February 1, 2015; N. Stanford, personal communication, January 31, 2015). Only a handful of studies have examined the effect of cane tip design on the frequency of sticking. La Grow, Kjeldstad, and Lewandowski (1988) found no significant difference in the frequency of sticking among the pencil, marshmallow, and curved tips when participants traveled on a sidewalk in a residential neighborhood. However, Pietrowicz (1987) and Robertson (1987) reported significantly fewer instances of sticking when using the marshmallow tip than when using the pencil tip on a rural road and residential sidewalk, respectively. In addition, Wang (1991) found the ball tip to be more effective than the marshmallow or metal glide tip in reducing the incidents of sticking in a rural area. However, we found no published studies that experimentally examined the effect of cane tip design on cane sticking when traveling on a snow-covered surface. The purpose of the present study is to examine how different cane tip designs affect the travel performance of blind pedestrians on a snow-covered surface. METHOD Study design and recruitment criteria A repeated-measures design with Latin Square counter-balancing was used for the study. Recruitment criteria included legal blindness with no other disabilities, familiarity with basic cane techniques, regular travel in winter (even when the ground is covered with snow), and enough stamina to walk a few blocks without resting. Apparatus Participants used identical canes of different lengths (Ambutech UltraLite Graphite Rigid Cane) with four different cane tips perceived to be advantageous in reducing the incident of sticking (at least on dry surfaces): (1) metal glide tip (Ambutech MT 4070), (2) marshmallow roller tip (Ambutech MT 4090), (3) roller ball tip (Ambutech MT 4061), and (4) bundu basher tip (Bevria ES 4274) (see Figure 1). A participant's cane length was assigned based on height: vertical distance from the ground to two inches above the participant's xiphoid process, as described in La Grow and Long (2011). [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Research procedure Each participant signed the informed consent form approved by Western Michigan University's Human Subjects Institutional Review Board before participating in the study. Sleep shades (Mindfold Relaxation Mask) were worn by all participants during all trials (except for those with no light perception). A rectangular block in a residential neighborhood in Kalamazoo, Michigan, was selected for the study (see Figure 2). …

Effect of Cane Technique on Obstacle Detection with the Long Cane

Modern long cane (also known as the white cane) techniques have changed little since their development in the 1940s. The two-point touch and the constant-contact techniques are the two used most widely by travelers who are blind. Regardless of which technique is used, obstacle detection, a key component of preview offered by a long cane (Blasch, La Grow, & De l'Aune, 1996), is crucial for the safety of blind travelers. When obstacles such as construction cones or toys left on the sidewalk are missed, they may trip the cane user, resulting in falls and consequent fall-induced injuries. Several recent studies have examined how different factors affect drop-off detection with the long cane. Cane users detected drop-offs more reliably when they used the constant-contact technique than when they used the two-point touch technique, particularly if they were inexperienced cane users respectively (Kim, Wall Emerson, & Curtis, 2009; Kim, Wall Emerson, & Curtis, 2010a). Younger cane users and those with earlier-onset visual impairments detected drop-offs better than older cane users and those with later-onset visual impairments (Kim, Wall Emerson, & Curtis, 2010b). However, drop-off detection performance with a standard marshmallow tip was similar to that with a marshmallow roller tip (Kim, Wall Emerson, & Curtis, 2010c). In addition, a cane length difference of 10 inches did not result in a significant difference in drop-off detection (Kim & Wall Emerson, 2012). In respect to obstacle detection, La Grow, Blasch, and De l'Aune (1997a) reported that participants achieved the greatest detection distance for foot-level objects (those that are not higher than the ankle) when the hand holding the cane was held at the midline and positioned below the waist. In another study, La Grow, Blasch, and De l'Aune (1997b) also documented that the two-point touch technique did not provide consistent surface previewing for four of seven participants. Wall and Ashmead (2002) found that pivoting the wrist when swinging the cane resulted in better body coverage than did moving the whole arm. The reliability of traditional cane techniques for detecting obstacles is of particular interest because some of the previous studies reported path coverage rates that were inadequately low (61-69%) when the participants used the two-point touch technique (Uslan, 1978; Wall & Ashmead, 2002). Although one orientation and mobility (OM La Grow & Long, 2011). What is of additional interest is whether the constant-contact technique indeed has an advantage over the two-point touch technique in detecting low obstacles. Such claims have been made by many cane users based on the fact that the cane tip stays in contact with the walking surface at all times when the constant-contact technique is used. However, these claims have been solely based on anecdotes and have not been examined empirically. The purpose of the present study was to examine how reliable the traditional cane techniques are for detecting obstacles and whether the type of cane technique affects obstacle detection as it interacts with the height of the obstacles. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] METHOD Study design and recruitment criteria A repeated-measures design with block randomization was used for the study. We recruited 14 sighted students (7 female and 7 male) aged 22 to 62 (median age = 26) from Western Michigan University's (WMU) O&M program. The participants were familiar with both the two-point touch and the constant-contact techniques and their cane use experience ranged from one month to four months (median experience = four months). …

A Seamless Approach to Transitioning Cane Skills from the Diagonal to the Two-Point Touch Technique

The profession of orientation and mobility (OM Jacobson, 1993; LaGrow & Long, 2011; LaGrow & Weesies, 1994), strategies for teaching OM Fazzi & Naimy, 2010; Griffin-Shirley & Welsh, 2010; Skellinger & Sapp, 2010; Welsh, 2010), rationales, and appropriate settings (Hill & Ponder, 1976; Jacobson, 1993; LaGrow & Weesies, 1994; LaGrow & Long, 2011). These strategies and techniques are also addressed in many university preparation programs. All the foregoing authorities have done an excellent job of using task analysis to describe specific cane techniques, and some have even offered suggested sequences for introducing skills and presented teaching strategies. However, there is an apparent paucity of information on specific activities that are necessary to connect the dots for practitioners that make sense to students and that provide a nearly seamless transition from what has been learned previously to what needs to be learned. Such information may be provided by practitioners who have determined from their experience what works best with students who are blind. A case in point is the two-point touch technique (Hill & Ponder, 1976; Jacobson, 1993; Knott, 2002; LaGrow & Long, 2011; LaGrow & Weesies, 1994). All agree that there are essentially seven components to this primary mobility skill for travel in familiar and unfamiliar environments. These components are: the position of the cane (at the midline), the index finger down the flat side of the grip, wrist action (flexion, extension, and hyperextension), the height of the (no more than 1.5 inches off the surface at the apex of the arc), the width of the (approximately 1 inch beyond the widest parts of the student's body), rhythm (the cane taps the surface each time either of the student's heels touches the surface), and staying in step (the cane taps on the opposite side of the foot touching the surface). Note that Pogrund et al. (2000) identified nine components for the same skill by separating the arm position and the hand position and adding an additional component in-step correction (that is, skipping or tapping the cane twice on the same side to get back in while Knott (2002) identified only six steps. However, differences between these techniques are descriptive rather than substantive. I have frequently observed that if the skill set known as the two-point touch technique is taught as a whole, both the student and the instructor are often frustrated. Such attempts are characterized by constant verbal corrections--for example, arc left, right, get in right, cane at the midline, not enough coverage on your right, your is too high, you're out of step, ad nauseam! As a solution, when using this strategy, the instructor is advised to introduce the components one step at a time, starting with the diagonal technique. It should be emphasized that the following is just one strategy, not the only strategy, for teaching the two-point touch technique, and, as a professional, the instructor has every right to make modifications that he or she deems appropriate for the individual student who is blind. The diagonal technique is usually the first independent cane technique that is taught to students. Succinctly, it serves the purpose of being a bumper that is far more effective than the lower hand and forearm protective technique, and can be used to trail vertical surfaces for alignment and to locate doors and intersecting hallways. In addition, this technique is extremely easy to teach, easy to learn, and infinitely functional for familiar indoor environments where there is no danger of drop-offs or stairs, and may used to make the transition easily and seamlessly to the two-point touch technique. …

Effect of Cane Length on Drop-off Detection Performance

Although individuals who are blind have used a stick or a cane for their independent travel since the early years of human history, designs for modern long canes did not appear until World War II, when the systematic long cane techniques were developed by Hoover (1962). Ergonomic factors, such as the length of the cane, may affect how well a cane user can detect the presence of obstacles and changes in surface elevation, including drop-offs. Reliable drop-off detection with a long cane, an essential component of surface preview (Blasch, La Grow, & De l'Aune, 1996), is critical for the safety of travelers who are blind who use canes, since missing drop-offs or other changes in elevation in the walking surface may cause them to fall or accidentally stumble into the collision path of approaching vehicles. Kim, Wall Emerson, and Curtis (2009) found that cane users were able to detect drop-offs more reliably when they used the constant contact technique than when they used the two-point touch technique. The characteristics of cane users may also influence the users' performance in detecting drop-offs. In Kim, Wall Emerson, and Curtis's (2010a) study, younger users were able to detect drop-offs more reliably than were older cane users. Cane users who lost their vision early in life also detected drop-offs more reliably than did those who lost their vision later (Kim et al., 2010a). In addition, those who had regularly used a cane for at least two years performed better than did those who were less experienced (Kim, Wall Emerson, & Curtis, 2010c). Detecting drop-offs may also be influenced by ergonomic factors, such as the type of cane tip (Kim, Wall Emerson, & Curtis, 2010b) and length of the cane (Rodgers & Wall Emerson, 2005). How the length of a cane may affect the detection of drop-offs is of particular interest because there appear to be different opinions on this matter among cane users. According to the traditional method (called the method), a proper cane length is defined as the vertical distance from the ground to 2 inches above the xiphoid process (La Grow & Weessies, 1994). In a study conducted with 10 adult cane users who were visually impaired (that is, those who were blind or had low vision), Rodgers and Wall Emerson (2005) reported that the use of a standard-length cane, measured by the sternum method, allowed the users to detect drop-offs significantly better than with the canes that were either 5%-15% shorter or 10%-20% longer than the standard length. However, some cane travelers have advocated for a cane that is substantially longer than the standard length. For example, Willoughby and Monthei (1998) suggested that although a cane user' s stride, walking speed, and reflexes should be considered, a cane that reaches only to the sternum is not long enough to ensure safety for an average cane user. In addition, Kish (2009) suggested, on the basis of personal anecdotal experience, that children up to age 6 should use canes that are as long as their height and that adult travelers need to use canes that are about chin high. Given this controversy, we investigated whether the length of the cane affects the detection of drop-offs. We also examined whether there is an interaction between the length of a cane and the depth of a drop-off. METHOD A repeated-measures design with block randomization was used for the study. We recruited 15 sighted students (13 female and 2 male) aged 22 to 55 (median age = 34) from the orientation and mobility (O&M) program at Western Michigan University who were familiar with both the two-point touch and constant contact techniques. These students had received 1 month to 4 months (median = 1.4 months) of cane training. A 32-foot-long walkway with six carpeted plywood platforms (8 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 8 inches high) was used for the study. We placed two plywood boards (2 feet long and 4 feet wide) on top of braced rectangular frames (2 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 2 inches high) against the lengthwise end of the walkway to change the depth of the drop-off from trial to trial. …

Learning from Our Past: The Orientation and Mobility Archives

Philosopher and poet George Santayana (1905) is credited with first expressing the often-repeated idea that Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. What is there to learn from the history of the orientation and mobility (O&M) profession that can guide our future? The practice of teaching people who are blind to use a long cane to help them travel independently got its start during the U.S. Army's rehabilitation program during World War II. The field's historian, C. Warren Bledsoe, who played a role in this development, believed that it was facilitated by the fact that it took place outside the realm of existing services for people who were blind. People with an open mind on the subject were given the task of helping newly blinded soldiers learn how to get around their environment without the use of vision. Although people who were experienced in the field of blindness visited the program or served as advisers, the rehabilitation programs at Valley Forge Army Rehabilitation Hospital and at Avon Old Farms saw themselves and were seen as something new and apart from the field. As Williams (1986) recalled: Some months before I came to Valley Forge the morale of the blinded soldiers and the staff of the eye program were critically low. Corporal Hoover, who had been sent to the program from the Combat Engineers, stated that while most people said blind people traveled well, he believed they traveled poorly. This pronouncement jolted the staff but he went off, blindfolded himself, [and] decided that canes were required for these fellows to travel well. He then prevailed upon a steelmaker in nearby Norristown to divert some steel from tanks and liberty ships to make three hundred long canes. He prevailed on higher-ups at Valley Forge and above to provide the teachers. Hoover taught them how to teach and was hard nosed that it be done right. In retrospect, it was interesting to see how this new approach was introduced to an already well-established field. A review of the holdings of the C. Warren Bledsoe Orientation and Mobility Archives shed some light on this bit of history. Richard Hoover, the developer and the most visible champion of the long cane technique, made a presentation to the 1947 conference of the American Association of Workers for the Blind (AAWB) in Baltimore. Hoover was a young man who had taught physical education and wrestling at the Maryland School for the Blind for a few years before enlisting in the army during World War II. AAWB was an association of members who worked in the existing network of services for blind adults. Many were blind themselves and took great pride in the level of independence they had achieved and in what they had helped their clients achieve. It is fair to say that many were skeptical about what this former physical education teacher could teach them. Hoover began by acknowledging his own comparatively brief experience with this work and the lack of reliable data and useful information in the literature about travel without vision. But he did refer to a book by W. Hanks Levy published in London in 1872 that pointed to examples in both the Bible and Greek mythology of the use of a cane or a staff to help a blind person get around on his or her own. Levy also offered his own ideas about techniques and a rationale for people who were blind to learn to get around independently. Hoover noted that Levy's ideas of the methods and importance of acquiring the power of walking in the streets without a guide are so basically sound that it is amazing and a trifle sorrowing to note how little in the way of advancement or interest has been contributed in the past 100 years by those who by their position could have done so. (p. 27) In his 1947 presentation, Hoover wisely did not get into the specifics of the techniques that he and his colleagues developed and taught. …

Interaction Effects of the Amount of Practice, Preferred Cane Technique, and Type of Cane Technique Used on Drop-off Detection Performance

This study examined the interaction effects of the amount of practice and the cane technique used in drop-off detection with a sample of 32 adults who were blind. The advantage of the constant contact technique over the two-point touch technique was significantly greater for the less experienced cane users than for the more experienced ones.

Ergonomic Factors Related to Drop-Off Detection With the Long Cane: Effects of Cane Tips and Techniques

This study examined the effect of cane tips and cane techniques on drop-off detection with the long cane. Blind pedestrians depend on a long cane to detect drop-offs. Missing a drop-off may result in falls or collision with moving vehicles in the street. Although cane tips appear to affect a cane user's ability to detect drop-offs, few experimental studies have examined such effect. A repeated-measures design with block randomization was used for the study. Participants were 17 adults who were legally blind and had no other disabilities. Participants attempted to detect the drop-offs of varied depths using different cane tips and cane techniques. Drop-off detection rates were similar between the marshmallow tip (77.0%) and the marshmallow roller tip (79.4%) when both tips were used with the constant contact technique, p = .294. However, participants detected drop-offs at a significantly higher percentage when they used the constant contact technique with the marshmallow roller tip (79.4%) than when they used the two-point touch technique with the marshmallow tip (63.2%), p < .001. The constant contact technique used with a marshmallow roller tip (perceived as a less advantageous tip) was more effective than the two-point touch technique used with a marshmallow tip (perceived as a more advantageous tip) in detecting drop-offs. The findings of the study may help cane users and orientation and mobility specialists select appropriate cane techniques and cane tips in accordance with the cane user's characteristics and the nature of the travel environment.

Analysis of user characteristics related to drop-off detection with long cane

This study examined how user characteristics affect drop-off detection with the long cane. A mixed-measures design with block randomization was used for the study, in which 32 visually impaired adults attempted to detect the drop-offs using different cane techniques. Younger cane users detected drop-offs significantly more reliably (mean +/- standard deviation = 74.2% +/- 11.2% of the time) than older cane users (60.9% +/- 10.8%), p = 0.009. The drop-off detection threshold of the younger participants (5.2 +/- 2.1 cm) was also statistically significantly smaller than that of the older participants (7.9 +/- 2.2 cm), p = 0.007. Those with early-onset visual impairment (78.0% +/- 9.0%) also detected drop-offs significantly more reliably than those with later-onset visual impairment (67.3% +/- 12.4%), p = 0.01. No interaction occurred between examined user characteristics (age and age at onset of visual impairment) and the type of cane technique used in drop-off detection. The findings of the study may help orientation and mobility specialists select appropriate cane techniques in accordance with the cane user's age and onset of visual impairment.

Drop-off Detection with the Long Cane: Effects of Different Cane Techniques on Performance

This study compared the drop-off detection performance with the two-point touch and constant contact cane techniques using a repeated-measures design with a convenience sample of 15 cane users with visual impairments. The constant contact technique was superior to the two-point touch technique in the drop-off detection rate and the 50% detection threshold. The findings may help an orientation and mobility instructor select an appropriate technique for a particular client or training situation.