Canarium Indicum Research Articles

Spatialising the Melanesian Canarium industry: Understanding economic upgrading in an emerging industry among three Pacific small island states

This paper examines economic upgrading in the Canarium indicum (Canarium) nut industry in Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea. Canarium is a tree that is indigenous to Melanesia, and has been the subject of several commercialisation attempts since 1988. The paper assesses the outcomes to various actors in the Canarium supply chain from attempts to upgrade industry products and processes by: (1) increasing the available resource in suitable locations; (2) improving nut products and processing techniques; (3) increasing actors’ knowledge and supply chain coordination; and (4) establishing product standards. A two-phase data generation process was implemented. Document analysis and participant observations of industry workshops initiated a set of four economic upgrading interventions that were adaptively implemented. A second stage of workshops and 76 interviews enabled outcomes to be assessed at the project’s end. Findings suggest that a small number of urban-based entrepreneurs benefit and subsequently are lead actors in industry development, but at the expense of benefits being distributed to a larger, more spatially disparate group of smallholder and small commercial growers. These economic upgrading outcomes are circumscribed by core-periphery relations in Pacific small island states and the scale of industry in each country. Thus, spatial inequalities are reproduced through the emerging Canarium industries. We argue that different routes to industry development are required in each country. Development initiatives that capitalise on the benefits of micro-enterprise clusters, joint action and regional institutional arrangements are proposed to overcome the impediments imposed by the particular geographies of Pacific island states.

Selection of the tropical nutCanarium indicumfor early fruiting, nut-in-shell size and kernel size

Indigenous nut crops have great potential to improve the livelihood of rural populations in developing countries. Canarium indicum (Burseraceae) is an indigenous species of the lowlands of Pacific Islands with great potential for developing a commercial nut industry. We examined a plantation of 50 families of six-year-old Canarium indicum trees to determine whether some families displayed early fruiting and desirable nut characteristics. One thousand seedlings from 50 known parent trees (20 seedlings for each parent) were planted in 2005. Trees were assessed in 2011 for early flowering and fruiting. Of the 693 trees surviving after six years, 189 trees were flowering and 155 trees bore fruit. Nuts were sampled from 25 trees to assess nut-in-shell and kernel weights. There were significant differences in mean nut-in-shell weight between trees. Nut-in-shell from the best selections weighed nearly twice as much as those from the poorest selections. Similarly kernel weights for the best selections were more than twice the weight of those from the poorest selections. However, the best selections for nut-in-shell weight were not the same as the best selections for kernel weight, highlighting the importance of assessing a range of characteristics. The highest mean kernel-recovery (kernel to nut-in-shell weight ratio) for the best tree was nearly twice that of the tree with the lowest kernel-recovery. These results highlight the benefits of early evaluation programs to identify superior selections that will increase yield and quality of Canarium indicum kernels in Pacific Island countries.

Maturity indices ofCanarium indicum(Burseraceae) nuts

Many tree nuts are harvested from the ground following abscission, but some are harvested directly from trees when fruit is mature. Canarium indicum (Burseraceae) is a tropical nut indigenous to lowland rainforest of Melanesia that has great potential for commercialization. The nut is enclosed in a fleshy mesocarp that turns from green to purple before abscission and is usually gathered from the forest floor. Maturity of other nuts is often related to oil content and there may be a relationship between C. indicum fruit colour, kernel oil content and maturity. We observed the timing of colour change of fruit of C. indicum on trees over 8 weeks. We also compared the colour change in fruit at the top of the tree and the bottom of the tree over 8 weeks. Oil was extracted from kernels of purple, half-purple and green fruit with a Soxhlet-type apparatus. Kernels in each fruit colour category were weighed to obtain mean kernel weight in each colour category. Around 80% of C. indicum fruit ripened from green to purple and abscised over a period of 8 weeks. Fruit ripened first at the top of the tree. Purple or half-purple fruit of C. indicum produced kernels with a significantly higher oil content than green fruit (76.6 and 76.3% compared with 72.8%). Kernels from green fruits were small, shrivelled and weighed significantly less than kernels from purple and half-purple fruit. These results demonstrate that fruit colour of C. indicum is a suitable indicator of kernel maturity and oil content. Purple to half-purple fruit colour is a suitable harvest standard.

A roasting study for the tropical nutCanarium indicum(Burseraceae)

Roasting is an important postharvest process for enhancing the palatability of nuts. Canarium indicum (Burseraceae) is a tropical nut indigenous to lowland rainforests of Melanesia that has potential for commercialization. Three roasting regimes were investigated to indicate a suitable temperature/time relationship for roasting Canarium. 1) Roasting for the same time (10 min) at three different temperatures (115, 120 and 125°C) using fresh kernels (roasted within one month of harvest) and aged kernels (stored for three months after harvest); 2) Roasting for two different times (10 and 17 min) at the same temperature (120°C); 3) Roasting kernels of low, medium and high oily appearance at the same temperature (115°C). Kernel colour was rated from 1 (lightest) to 5 (darkest) using a paint colour swatch. Colours 3, 4 and 5 were considered dark enough to cause rejection. The mean colour of kernels was significantly darker when roasted at 125°C for 10 min compared with roasting at 115 and 120°C. Aged kernels were significantly darker when roasting at 120°C for 17 min than when roasted for 10 min. Roasting 'high' oily kernels produced significantly darker kernels compared with roasting 'shiny' and 'dull' kernels. These results indicate that aged Canarium kernels of inferior quality should be roasted at temperatures below 125°C for less than 17 min, but fresh, good quality kernels can be roasted at 125°C for 10 min. Kernels with very oily appearance are not suitable for roasting as oiliness indicates cellular damage, predisposing to excessive after-roast-darkening. Further research is required to provide clearer guidelines for roasting good quality Canarium kernels.

The Effect of Heating Process Using Electric and Gas Ovens on Chemical and Physical Properties of Cooked Smoked-Meat

Study of potential of kenari (Canarium indicum L.) shell as a raw material in liquid smoke production for meat flavor developer has been done. To achieve this study, heating method using electric and gas ovens on the properties of the cooked smoke-meat have been carried out. The characterization of chemical properties (water content, protein content, fat content, TBA and the number of peroxide, physical properties (cooking loss, WHC, tenderness, color) cooked smoke-meat were analyzed using the Independent-Sample T Test. The results showed that protein and water contents as well as physical properties of electric oven- and gas oven-heated-cooked smoked meats were relatively the same. Fat content of electric oven-heated-cooked smoked meat was higher than that of oven gas-heated-cooked smoked meat. The TBA and peroxide values of electric oven-heated-cooked smoked meat were lower that gas oven-heated-cooked smoked meat.

Synthesis and Characterization of 2-monoacylglycerols from Canarium Oil (Canarium Indicum)

This paper studies synthesis and characterization of 2-monoacylglycerols (2-MAGs), generally used for structured lipid production. Synthesis used canarium oil by enzymatic reaction using immobilized lipase from Mucor miehei that has a specific activity on the sn-1 and 3 of the triacylglycerol structure. Characterization of 2-MAGs by thin layer chromatography using a standard of 2-oleoylglycerol followed by isolation and purification to determine the fatty acids composition.The highest composition of fatty acids on 2-MAGs were unsaturated fatty acids, namely oleic acid (939.8ppm) and linoleic acid (445.5ppm), therefore it could be used for the synthesis of structured lipid.

Demographic response and life history of traditional forest resource tree species in a tropical mosaic landscape in Papua New Guinea

Disturbance is well known to play an important structuring role in rainforest succession and in maintaining overall diversity. However, the ecological responses arising from changes in land use such as traditional and modified shifting cultivation practices are less well known. The distribution and dynamics of plant populations may be affected by such changes in land use and often their responses are compounded by a lack of life history data. The life history traits and demographic parameters important to successional species responses to disturbance remain poorly understood beyond broad generalisations, particularly in rainforests outside of the Neotropics. We examined the life history and demography of five rainforest tree species in Papua New Guinea to investigate the effect of shifting cultivation practices on their population dynamics. The demographic parameters most successful for continued population growth were medium to high recruitment, low seedling mortality and high seedling abundance, relatively low growth rates (compared to many pioneer species) and moderate to high abundance in all life stages. Successful life history traits were high seed mass, moderate shade-tolerance and high cultural value. In accordance with their demographies and life histories, Pterocarpus indicus, Vitex cofassus and Artocarpus altilis were classified as early successional species, while Pometia pinnata and Canarium indicum were considered mid-successional. The results suggest that the earlier successional species do not necessarily have an advantage in disturbed environments; persistence is more likely to rely on the response of inherent demographic processes to external influences.

POSTHARVEST CRACKING AND TESTA REMOVAL METHODS FOR CANARIUM INDICUM NUTS IN THE PACIFIC

ISHS International Symposium Postharvest Pacifica 2009 - Pathways to Quality: V International Symposium on Managing Quality in Chains + Australasian Postharvest Horticultural Conference POSTHARVEST CRACKING AND TESTA REMOVAL METHODS FOR CANARIUM INDICUM NUTS IN THE PACIFIC

Characterization of tree-to-tree variation in morphological, nutritional and medicinal properties of Canarium indicum nuts

As part of a feasibility study of the commercialization potential of C. indicum nuts as Agroforestry Tree Products in Papua New Guinea, preliminary characterization studies have examined the tree-to-tree variation in morphological traits (nut and kernel mass and kernel:nut ratio), as well as nutritional (carbohydrate, fat, protein, sodium, vitamin E) and medicinal traits (anti-oxidant activity, anti-inflammatory activity and phenolic content) of kernels from 18 to 72 trees in a small number of different villages of Papua New Guinea (East New Britain Province). There was continuous variation in these traits indicating opportunities for multiple trait cultivar development targeted at food and pharmaceutical markets. Certain traits, for example anti-inflammatory activity, in which tree-to-tree variation was highly significant, present greater opportunities than others, such as saturated:unsaturated fatty acid ratio. This intraspecific variation was greater within populations than between populations. The data presented has allowed the development of a strategy to domesticate C. indicum for cultivation in homegardens and cocoa-coconut agroforests, using a participatory approach aimed at the production of agroforestry tree products (AFTPs) to empower small-holders and enhance their livelihoods and income.

Domestication potential and marketing of Canarium indicum nuts in the Pacific: 1. A literature review

Canarium indicum is an indigenous tree of the lowland forests of Melanesia (Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu) and parts of Indonesia producing edible nuts, commercial timber and some minor products. For thousands of years the nuts have been culturally important and a traditional food. Since the early 1990s there have been a number of projects aimed at the wider commercialization of the species, with mixed success. This review evaluates the biophysical and socio-economic literature and suggests how the domestication and commercialization processes could be taken forwards to improve the livelihoods of rural households in Melanesia. Many of the issues facing the domestication and commercialization of C. indicum nuts as an Agroforestry Tree Product (AFTP) are similar to those that will be important for the development of other AFTPs. Thus there are lessons that can be learnt from this species which make it a model for other agroforestry tree species.

A Vertical Wedge Press from the Banda Islands

In March 1981, while undertaking a brief pilot ethnographic survey of trade in the Banda archipelago of eastern Indonesia, I came across a wooden vertical wedge press of an unusual design. The press was located on the northern part of the island of Ay, in the area of settlement, and is depicted in figure 1. The press was described to me by Wilky Rinpassa, a native of Bandaneira, as one currently in use for extracting oil from nuts of the kenari tree (Canarium indicum L.) and also for pressing cassava.' I have seen no further presses of this design in the Banda archipelago and was told of none. Furthermore, there are no data to suggest that similar presses exist elsewhere in eastern Indonesia. Such negative evidence, in addition to the poor condition of the specimen observed, may mean that the technique is declining in significance. Equally, there are no data that would support the hypothesis that it has been superseded by a more efficient machine. Termed wesa-wesa in Bandanese Malay,2 the press stands 76.2 cm high, 152.4 cm long, and is approximately 25.4 cm wide. It consists of