Canarium Indicum Research Articles

The antioxidant and antibacterial study of Canarium indicum L. latex extract

Recently, plant extracts are natural additives that are in great demand. Many biological activities of plant extracts in the fields of food and health, make research on plant extracts quite rapid. Canarium indicum L. is one of the most famous fruits in Indonesia. However, usually only the seed of C. indicum that was studied such as anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, and hepatoprotective. In this paper, the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of C. indicum latex were studied. The C. indicum extract were prepared by maceration method using ethanol for 48 hours. After the evaporation, the crude extracts were evaluated its biological activity. The antibacterial activity was performed using dilution method and the antioxidant activity was using DPPH assay. The scavenging activity of C. indicum latex extracts values in the range of 10.92 – 58.36% with the extract concentration of 100 to 800 ppm, respectively. The antibacterial activity of C. indicum latex extract was conducted against Gram-positive bacteria (S. aureus) and Gram-negative bacteria (E. coli). The inhibition zone C. indicum was 6.39±0.06 mm against S. aureus and 2.38±0.62 mm against E. coli at extract concentration of 10000 ppm. The results obtained indicate that C. indicum latex extract is favourable to be applied in the fields of medicine and health.

Quality estimation of nuts using deep learning classification of hyperspectral imagery

Rapid quality assessment of nuts is important to increase the shelf life and minimise the nut loss due to rancidity. Existing methods for nut quality estimation are usually slow and destructive. In this study, a quick and non-destructive method using hyperspectral imaging (HSI) coupled with deep learning classification was applied for the quality estimation of unblanched kernels in Canarium indicum categorized by peroxide values (PV). A set of 2300 sub-images of 289 C. indicum samples were used to train a convolutional neural network (CNN) to estimate quality levels. Series of ablation experiments showed that the highest overall accuracy of PV estimation on the test set reached 93.48%, with 95.59%, 90.00%, and 95.83% for good, medium, and poor quality nuts, respectively. The results indicate that deep learning classification of hyperspectral imagery offers a great potential for accurate, real-time, and non-destructive quality estimation of nuts in practical applications.

Short communication: Effects of Canarium indicum oil in enhancing brain-derived neurotrophic factor in rats

Abstract. Rahman H, Anggadiredja K, Gusdinar T, Sitompul JP, Tursino. 2020. Short communication: Effects of Canarium indicum oil in enhancing brain-derived neurotrophic factor in rats. Nusantara Bioscience 12: 168-174. The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is one of the neurotrophins family and plays an essential role during the development of neurons called neurogenesis. Since BDNF is critical for the function and survival of neurons, thus it represents the neuroprotective agent which useful in preventing neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we investigated BDNF serum concentrations after feeding the canarium oil (CO) and Canarium oil-based structured triglyceride (COST) in rats. Analysis of the BDNF serum was conducted by sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The results demonstrated that the CO and the COST with the main composition of unsaturated fatty acids at the sn-2 position as much as 94.92% mol may enhance BDNF serum concentrations of up to 2.66% and 21.96% compared to the normal group of rats, respectively. This finding proves that the COST has prospects as an inducer of BDNF. However, further studies should be conducted to identify the precise dosage and safety products.

Performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine employing straight vegetable oils from Vanuatu as fuels

The performance characteristics of the engine and the emission levels with Copra Oil (CPO), Virgin Coconut (cocos nucifera) Oil (VCO), Tamanu (calaphyllum inopyllum) Oil (TMO), and Nangae (canarium indicum) Oil (NGO) are presented. The oils, obtained from naturally grown trees in Vanuatu, were tested as straight vegetable oils (SVOs) in a Diesel engine and the results are compared with those of neat diesel. The oils were converted to their fatty-acid-methyl-esters (FAMEs) using gas chromatography to determine their fatty acid compositions. The brake thermal efficiency with SVOs was found to be comparable to diesel. The structure of the alkyl chain and the carbon-to-hydrogen ratio were also studied. All the oils have Palmitic acid, Capric acid, Caprylic acid, and Oleic acid as the major fatty acids. The CPO and VCO have higher amounts of Oleic acid, which acts as an additive and breaks up the interaction between the major fatty acids at higher temperatures, reducing the viscosity. Emissions of CO2 were lower while those of CO, NOx, and SO2 were higher with SVOs compared to diesel. The results indicate that the local SVOs are good and inexpensive substitute fuels for Vanuatu that can help the country meet the UN’s sustainable development goals.

Canarium Nut Powder Formulations for Making Crispy Cookies

Almond has been used as basic ingredients in making of crispy cookies. However, almond nut is not native to Indonesia and usually grows in sub-tropical regions with the highest producer from USA. Therefore, other tree-nut species can be used to replace almond in bakery products especially crispy cookies. One alternative is canarium nut (Canarium indicum L). This research was aimed to determine the exact formulation of canarium nut powder in order to replace almond nut in the making of crispy cookies based on its chemical and sensory characteristics. A Completely Randomized Experimental Design with 5 levels of treatments, i.e: K0: Control (20% almond powder), K1: 10% canarium powder, K2: 20% canarium powder, K3: 30% canarium powder, K4 : 40% canarium powder. Results showed that canarium nut powder could be used as a replacement to almond powder for making crispy cookies. The canarium nut powder of 40% was the best treatment to replace almond powder in order to produce crispy cookies with desired characteristics of moisture, ash, protein, fat, fibre and carbohydrate content of 0.66%, 1.60%, 6.40%, 23.29%, 1.23%, and 67.82%, respectively. Crispy cookies with 40% canarium nut powder had sensory characteristics of colour, aroma, taste, crispiness, and overall likeness that were slightly better than the control of 20% almond powder.

Spectrofluorometric determination of L-tryptophan in canary (Canarium indicum L.) seed protein hydrolysate

Canary (Canarium indicum L.) is an indigenous plant of Indonesia, which mainly grows in the eastern part of Indonesia, especially in the Maluku, North Sulawesi, and Seram islands. We believe that no scientific reports have been conducted about L-tryptophan content in Canarium indicum. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the presence and quantitate the aromatic amino acid (L-tryptophan) in the canary protein hydrolysate by the spectrofluorometric method. The protein hydrolysate was prepared by two hydrolysis methods, enzymatic and alkaline hydrolysis. L-tryptophan can be differentiated from tyrosine directly without using any reagent by excitation of the sample at 295 nm in order to avoid tyrosine emission. The equation of calibration curve correlation using standard in the range 0.5-5 ppm was y = 6632.3x - 845.42 and correlation coefficient of 0.9997, while the coefficient of variance in linear regression was 1.29%. The detection limit and quantification limit obtained were 0.116 ppm and 0.35 ppm respectively. The recoveries of the accuracy test were obtained in the range of 95-96%. The relative standard deviation of intra-assay precision tests were obtained in the range of 0.5-1.8%, while the intermediate precision in the range of 2.18-3.74%. L-tryptophan was detected in all samples (papain, pepsin, and alkaline hydrolysate), with concentrations 5.6, 5 and 1.53 mg/100mg of protein respectively. The used fluorometric method complied with the validation requirements and can be used to analyze L-tryptophan in samples containing tyrosine without overlapping of spectra and without the use of any specific reagent.

The Potential of Walnut Seeds (Canarium indicum L.) in Repairing The Genotoxicity Effect of Mercury on Mice Erythrocytes

Hydrargyrum (familiar as mercury) is a persistent transition metal element. They are known as bio-accumulative properties that are dangerous to the environment and has serious damaging effects on biota, including genetic changes or mutagenesis. Moreover, it can accumulate indirectly in the human body due to the consumption of products that have contaminated. Whereas, ellagic acid has reported as one of 13 flavonoid compounds that have potential as an anti-mutagen and anti-cancer in the walnuts seeds. This study was aimed to ensure the potential extent of ellagic acid extracts in walnut seeds to reducing and repairing the genotoxicity effects of mercury. Therefore, using the experimental method, this study was divided into several test treatments. Two controls treatment as a comparison of the presence of micronucleus with group tests that given a 20 ppm mercury dosage. Then continued with the addition of walnut seed extract with various dosage (10, 15, and 20 ppm) by oral injection continuously for two weeks as a recovery process to reducing and repairing the genotoxicity effect of mercury. The significant results showed that there are differences between pre and post-treatment. It indicated that the extract has the potential for improving and reducing the genotoxicity effect of mercury. The data were evaluated and obtained the total micronucleus from the smear of peripheral blood of mice by comparing the total micronucleus before and after giving of walnut extract.

Freezing, roasting and salt dipping impacts on peroxide value, free fatty acid and fatty acid concentrations of nut kernels

Tree nuts are rich in unsaturated fatty acids and nuts have human health benefits. It is important that postharvest processing does not negatively impact nut fatty acid composition and nut oil quality. Canarium indicum (Burseraceae) is an indigenous tree in the southwest Pacific that produces edible nuts. Canarium nuts are rich in oil (>70%), protein (14%), mineral nutrients and vitamin E. Domestication of Canarium nuts has been a priority in several Pacific countries. A centralised processing factory has been established in Papua New Guinea to produce high-quality Canarium products. We investigated the effects of freezing (frozen vs. fresh) on the fatty acid composition, peroxide value (PV) and free fatty acid (FFA) content of kernels. Freezing nuts did not change the total saturated and total unsaturated fatty acid of kernels compared with fresh kernels. Frozen kernels had significantly lower FFA than fresh kernels. We also explored the effects of roasting and roasting after dipping in salt-water solution on oil oxidation of kernels. The treatments included roasting at 150°C for 10 min, roasting at 150°C for 30 min after dipping in salt-water solution and unroasted. Roasted kernel with or without salt solution dipping had significantly higher PV than unroasted kernels. These results of these studies have led to the establishment of factory protocols for producing Canarium products with high food-quality and food-safety standards.

The effects of tree spacing regime and tree species composition on mineral nutrient composition of cocoa beans and canarium nuts in 8-year-old cocoa plantations

The selection of shade trees with appropriate spacing is important for minimising their impact on nutrient accumulation by understorey cash crops in agroforestry systems. Cocoa trees may be intercropped with overstorey legume or non-legume shade trees. A legume tree and/or a non-legume timber tree with edible kernels (Gliricidia sepium and Canarium indicum, respectively) are used as shade trees in cocoa plantations particularly in Papua New Guinea. This study explored the nutrient concentrations of cocoa beans in response to both tree-shade species and shade-tree spacing regime. The study also investigated the extent to which C. indicum tree spacing altered the nutrient concentrations of canarium kernels. G. sepium trees in the study had a final spacing of 12m × 12m while the spacing regimes of either 8m × 8m or 8m × 16m used for C. indicum. The calcium (Ca) concentrations of cocoa beans did not differ significantly between plants located next to G. sepium and plants located next to C. indicum. Cocoa beans next to C. indicum trees with spacing of 8m × 16m had higher potassium (K) concentrations than those next to G. sepium trees. However, phosphorus (P) concentrations of cocoa beans next to C. indicum trees with spacing of 8m × 8m or next to G. sepium trees were significantly higher than those next to C. indicum trees with spacing of 8m × 16m. The K concentrations in cocoa beans and soil were not correlated nor were the P concentrations in cocoa beans and soil. Correlations between nutrients in leaves and cocoa beans, or between leaves and canarium kernels, were not strong. Our results suggest that cocoa and canarium trees can be intercropped successfully, and that they do not compete for soil nutrients.

KAJIAN KOMPOSISI KIMIA, NILAI NUTRISI, DAN ETNOFARMAKOLOGIS TANAMAN GENUS KENARI

One species of canarium genus is Canarium indicum L which is an original plant from Indonesia. Utilization of some canarium nut species which spread around the world had been recognized, such as a source of nutritious food as well as its potency as raw material of medicine based on evidence-based scientific. In traditional medicine, was reported if canarium nut had been used for diabetes mellitus treatment, angina, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, expectorant, etc. This article aims to review the chemical composition, nutrient values, and potency of canarium nut as the raw material of medicine. Scientific data were obtained from online search results. From the searching was found that at least eight species of canarium nut reported which is related to chemical composition and its nutrition which also provide ethnopharmacological benefits. Overall results, all identified canarium nut species have a favorable chemical composition and nutritional values that can be utilized as functional, nutritional and medicinal food. Therefore, the result of this study also indicates if the canarium nut from Indonesia, C. indicum L., has not been thoroughly studied. That indicates by the lack of scientific paper which presented about C. indicum from Indonesia.

The effect of heating process using electric and gas ovens on sensory properties of cooked smoked-meat

Study of the potential of kenari (Canarium indicum L.) shell as a raw material in liquid smoke production to increase the sensory quality of the cooked smoke-meat has been done. To achieve this study, a heating method using electric and gas ovens on the properties of the cooked smoke-meat have been carried out. The characterization of sensory properties (color, aroma flavor, tenderness, and acceptability) cooked smoke-meat were analyzed using the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis. The results showed that the parameter sensory properties of color, tenderness, aroma, flavor, and acceptability of cooked smoked-meat are heated using an electric oven is no different from using a heated gas oven.

Urban trees in the Cities of Matsuyama (Japan) and Yogyakarta (Indonesia): tree species diversity, design, and culture

The objective of this study was to assess the diversity and value of the tree species within the urban design of Yogyakarta and Matsuyama. We acquired the data by exploring the urban areas of Matsuyama, mainly main roads, during 2010-2013, while in Yogyakarta between 2015 and 2017. We identified the species of the trees and obtained the cultural value of them by interview. Matsuyama’s urban forest has a distinctive vegetation on sakura (Prunus spp.), Japanese pine (Pinus sp.) and camellia (Camellia sp.). It develops urban designs for protecting and maintaining the urban forest i.e. a protective railing, a ring around the base of the stem, and a carpet for moisturizing and protecting. The Japanese pine is depicted as a city emblem, while camellia is visualized on the culvert cover. In Yogyakarta’s urban forest, Pterocarpus indicus dominates as a shade tree with Mimusops elengi, Samanea saman, Tamarindus indica, Ficus elasticus, and/or Canarium indicum. Mentaok (Wrightia javanica) as a historical tree has great potential. The urban trees grow in the pots in the median and roadside. Malioboro Street has already built protective fences and rings around the base of the stem. Yogyakarta has also a philosophical axis that symbolized human journey. The axis keeps 8 tree species based on palace guidance.

The assessment of canary trees in the Bogor Botanic Gardens using forest health monitoring and sonic tomography methods

Canary trees (Canarium indicum L.) at the Bogor Botanic Garden are some of the old trees that need to be assessed in term of tree health due to its impact to public safety. The study aims to determine the healthy condition of canary trees using two methods: Forest Health Monitoring (FHM) from USDA and the sonic tomography method, and also to develop a correlation between the assessments by those two methods. The FHM focuses on visual assessment using one parameter through dividing the tree in some locations from roots to bole, while sonic tomography were carried out using technology based on sonic characteristic. Statistical analysis were conducted through developing regression models between two methods. The assessment were conducted in three locations (root, stump, and bole) of 35 samples of canary trees. The result showed that based on FHM method, the Tree Damage Level Index had an average value of 4.3 (±1.2), while the damage to the wood found from using the sonic tomography method had an average value of 19.1% (±25.5). There was a correlation between FHM and sonic tomography at a damage location 1 (r=0.5), location 2 (r=0.7) and location 3 (r=0.8). This study proved the acceptability of the FHM method as well as sonic tomography to assess the tree condition.

The Potency of Monoterpenes Contained in Essential Oils of Canary Sap (Canarium indicum L.) as Anti-inflammatory Agent on Asthmatic Rats (Rattus norvegicus)

Asthma is a chronic airway disease characterized by significant exacerbation of bronchial spasm (bronchospasm) and airway inflammation. Asthma symptoms become more severe by oral infectious due to exposure of Gram-negative bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The essential oils (EO) of the canary sap ( Canarium indicum L.) contained linalool, p-cymene and γ-terpinene as an anti-inflammatory agent. The aim of this study to determine the potency EO canary therapy toward level of malondialdehyde (MDA) and lung histopathology of asthmatic rats. The asthmatic rats were prepared by sensitization of allergent conducted by intraperitonial injection and nebulized of ovalbumin (OVA) also intrasulcular injection of Lipopolysaccaride from Phorphyromonas gingivalis bacteria. Five groups of rats ( Rattus norvegicus ) were used in this research; ie the control group, the asthmatic group, and three groups with therapy of EO canary the dose of 25 mg/kg BW, 50 mg/kg BW and 100 mg/kg BW for 7 days. The contain of EO canary were analyzed by Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GCMS). The MDA levels were measured using the Thiobarbituric Acid (TBA) technique and histopatology of bronchial stained using Hematoxilin-Eosin (HE) and observed microscopically. The data were analyzed by One Way ANOVA with Tukey test (α = 0.05). The result showed that EO canary significantly (p < 0.05) decrease MDA levels and repair lung histopatology of asthmatic rats. The analysis EO canary performed by GCMS composed of l-phellandrene; p-cymene; γ-terpinene; linalool; camphor; limonene and 1,8-cineole. It can be concluded EO canary has potency as anti-inflammatory agent of asthmatic condition. The most effective dose therapy was obtained as high as 100 mg/kgBW that decreased 46.56 % level of MDA.

Influence of Treating Essential Oils of Canarium Tree Resin on The Level Malondialdehyde (MDA), Protease Activity, Bronchi Histopathology Description and Expression of Tumor Necrosis Alpha Factor (TNF-α) on Asthma Rats (Rattus norvegicus)

Essential oils of canarium tree resin ( Canarium indicum L ) have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity. Inflammation of the bronchi and airway remodeling is a major factor in the occurrence of asthma. The purpose of this study was to study the potential of essential oils of canarium tree resin on the expression of TNF-α, changes in bronchial epithelial cell features, MDA levels and protease activity from OVA and LPS exposure in a rat model of asthma. This study used four groups of rat, the negative control group, asthma group, therapy group dose 25 mg/kg BB and 50 mg/kg BB. TNF-α expression was calculated using Walter calculations, histopathologic observation of bronchi was observed using Olympus BX51 microscope, MDA level was measured using Thiobarbituric Acid (TBA) method and measurement of protease activity was done by spectrophotometric method, and analyzed by ANOVA. The results showed that the therapy of essential oils of canarium tree resin at 25 mg/kg BB and 50 mg/kg BB significantly (P&lt;0.05), after treatment for seven days decreased, MDA 44%, Protease activity 46%, improved bronchial epithelium and TNF-α expression by 51%. This study proves that essential oils of canarium tree resin can be effectively used as therapy in asthma model rats.

A non-destructive determination of peroxide values, total nitrogen and mineral nutrients in an edible tree nut using hyperspectral imaging

Nuts are nutritionally valuable for a healthy diet but can be prone to rancidity due to their high unsaturated fat content. Nutrient content of nuts is an important component of their health benefits but measuring both rancidity and nutrient content of nuts is laborious, tedious and expensive. Hyperspectral imaging has been used to predict chemical composition of plant parts. This technique has the potential to rapidly predict chemical composition of nuts, including rancidity. Hence, this study explored to what extent hyperspectral imaging (400–1000 nm) could predict chemical components of Canarium indicum nuts. Partial least squares regression (PLSR) models were developed to predict kernel rancidity using peroxide value (PV) for two different batches of kernels, and macro- and micronutrients of kernels using the spectra of the samples obtained from hyperspectral images. The models provided acceptable prediction abilities with strong coefficients of determination (R2) and ratios of prediction to deviation (RPD) of the test set for PV, first batch (R2 = 0.72; RPD = 1.66), PV, second batch (R2 = 0.81; RPD = 2.30), total nitrogen (R2 = 0.80; RPD = 1.58), iron (R2 = 0.75; RPD = 1.46), potassium (R2 = 0.51; RPD = 0.94), magnesium (R2 = 0.81; RPD = 2.04), manganese (R2 = 0.71; RPD = 1.84), sulphur (R2 = 0.76; RPD = 1.84) and zinc (R2 = 0.62; RPD = 1.37) using selected wavelengths. This study indicated that visible-near infrared (VNIR) hyperspectral imaging has the potential to be used for prediction of chemical components of C. indicum nuts without the need for destructive analysis. This technique has potential to be used to predict chemical components in other nuts.

Benefits and risks for Melanesian households from commercialising Canarium indicum

AbstractThis research note discusses the benefits and risks for Melanesian households arising from attempts to increasingly commercialise Canarium indicum, an edible tree nut indigenous to Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. Qualitative data were generated during workshops and interviews with Canarium industry stakeholders about the impacts associated with a series of interventions designed to encourage further commercialisation of Canarium. The findings are organised according to three dimensions that elucidate the social implications of industry development for local communities: (i) income and growth; (ii) equity; and (iii) voice and choice. Broader distribution of benefits within and between countries, as well as among supply chain actors, requires a stronger policy response at regional (Melanesia) and national scales, equitable gender representation to avoid reinforcing existing inequalities, and delegation of decision‐making power to the appropriate level to facilitate effective community participation and their links with other stakeholders. Thus, it remains to be seen whether Canarium‐related benefits arising from its commercialisation can be sufficiently reliable compared with either other sources of income (e.g. existing employment opportunities for those located near urban areas) or utilising the resource for subsistence purposes.

Effects of shade-tree species and spacing on soil and leaf nutrient concentrations in cocoa plantations at 8 years after establishment

Intercropping in agroforestry systems improves ecosystem services. Appropriate species compositions and spacing regimes are critical to achieve ecosystem benefits and improve yields of all the component crops. Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) is an important cash crop globally but it requires shade for survival and growth. However, the effects of shade-tree species composition and spacing regime on nutrient cycling in cocoa plantations are not well understood. This study investigated the effects of shade tree species and spacing regimes on soil and plant nutrient availability at 8 years after plantation establishment in Papua New Guinea. Three cocoa intercropping systems were established in which T. cacao was planted with either a non-legume timber tree, Canarium indicum, or a legume non-timber tree, Gliricidia sepium. The shade-tree spacing regimes included either 8 m × 16 m or 8 m × 8 m in the Theobroma + Canarium plantations. There was an ongoing thinning regime in the Theobroma + Gliricidia plantation, with a final shade-tree spacing of 12 m × 12 m. Soil total carbon (TC) and total nitrogen (TN) were significantly higher in the Theobroma + Gliricidia plantation with 12 m × 12 m spacing and the Theobroma + Canarium plantation with 8 m × 16 m spacing than in the Theobroma + Canarium plantation with 8 m × 8 m spacing. Foliar TN and P were correlated with soil TN and P, respectively, whereas no correlation was detected between soil and leaf K concentrations. Foliar TN, P and K were under ideal concentrations for T. cacao in all of the plantations. The Theobroma + Gliricidia plantation had higher soil water extractable phosphorus (P) than the two Theobroma + Canarium plantations, probably due to frequent pruning of the G. sepium trees. Foliar C isotope composition (δ13C) of T. cacao suggested that T. cacao close to G. sepium or close to C. indicum with spacing of 8 m × 16 m and 8 m × 8 m had similar light interception. However, increased C. indicum spacing increased the light interception of T. cacao trees that were not planted next to C. indicum. This study indicated that non-legume timber trees with an optimized spacing regime can be used as overstorey shade trees for T. cacao. However, our study indicated all three plantations required fertilisation and better nutrient management.

Shelf Life of Tropical Canarium Nut Stored under Ambient Conditions

There is a need to develop alternative crops to improve the food security and prosperity of developing countries. The tropical nut Canarium indicum (canarium nut) is increasingly used as a shade tree for cocoa and has potential for commercialization as a sustainable crop that will improve food security and livelihoods in Melanesia and East Asia. There is no information on canarium nut shelf life characteristics. Canarium kernels may be prone to rancidity, due to a high content of unsaturated fatty acids. Kernels at 5.4% moisture content were vacuum-packed with a domestic vacuum-packaging system and stored for six months in Papua New Guinea and for nine months in Southeast Queensland, Australia at both ambient temperatures (22 to 31 °C and 22 to 25 °C, respectively) and under refrigeration. Nuts were analysed for changes in peroxide values and free fatty acids (FFAs) over the storage periods that might indicate development of rancidity. Peroxide values indicated very low levels of oxidation in all treatments. Free fatty acids were at low levels but increased significantly during storage at ambient temperatures. The results suggested that vacuum-packed Canarium nuts can be stored safely under ambient tropical conditions for six months with daytime temperatures around 31 °C, and for nine months at 25 °C. Increasing FFA levels at ambient temperatures indicate caution about longer storage time at ambient temperatures. Storage under refrigeration greatly prolonged shelf life.

Processing methods for canarium nuts in the Pacific

Nuts have huge potential to improve the livelihood of the rural poor in developing countries and meet the Millennium Development Goal to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. Nuts often have a high protein and oil content, giving them excellent nutritional value. They can be processed and stored for long periods and therefore can improve food security, be sold for cash or be processed and exported to distant markets, thus helping the rural poor to participate in the cash economy. We report here on three processing systems for Canarium indicum nuts developed in three Pacific Island countries: Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. Centralized processing has been developed in Papua New Guinea and fruit is purchased from smallholders at a central processing facility. The fruit is depulped, the nut-in-shell is cracked, the testa is removed and the kernel is dried using ovens in this facility. This provides a very high quality product and reduces the risk of microbial contamination. In decentralized processing systems, the farmers in remote locations crack and dry the nuts using traditional methods (Solomon Islands) or solar driers (Vanuatu) then sell the dried kernel to a centralized processor. This reduces transport costs and requires no infrastructure, but there is a greater risk of poor quality kernels or microbial contamination. In village cracking systems in Vanuatu, the fruits are processed and cracked in the village and supplied as fresh, high moisture content kernel-in-testa to secondary processors. This is a hybrid system that minimizes transport costs and risks of contamination. However, this system requires delivery to the processor immediately after cracking to stabilize the kernel. The most appropriate system for processing will depend on the unique circumstances of each country.