Camera-trap Monitoring Research Articles

Habitat Use and Activity Patterns of Mammals and Birds in Relation to Temperature and Vegetation Cover in the Alpine Ecosystem of Southwestern China with Camera-Trapping Monitoring.

Simple SummaryThe Wolong National Nature Reserve in Sichuan province covers a unique mountainous ecosystem located on the eastern border of the Tibetan Plateau in China. We applied a popular non-invasive observational method, i.e., infrared-triggered camera trapping, to gain thousands of photographs of wildlife to monitor biodiversity over three years. Combined with data on the local abiotic factors, our integrative statistical analysis identified the key environmental drivers, i.e., temperature and vegetation, affecting the distribution and abundance of mammals and birds in the reserve. All species were classified into three main types by their tolerance of or fondness for different environmental conditions. The detectability of each species by camera trapping was quantified and ranked to provide insights on each species’ relative abundance in the area.The high-altitude ecosystem of the Tibetan Plateau in China is a biodiversity hotspot that provides unique habitats for endemic and relict species along an altitudinal gradient at the eastern edge. Acquiring biodiversity information in this area, where the average altitude is over 4000 m, has been difficult but has been aided by recent developments in non-invasive technology, including infrared-triggered camera trapping. We used camera trapping to acquire a substantial number of photographic wildlife records in Wolong National Nature Reserve, Sichuan, China, from 2013 to 2016. We collected information of the habitat surrounding the observation sites, resulting in a dataset covering 37 species and 12 environmental factors. We performed a multivariate statistical analysis to discern the dominant environmental factors and cluster the mammals and birds of the ecosystem in order to examine environmental factors contributing to the species’ relative abundance. Species were generalized into three main types, i.e., cold-resistant, phyllophilic, and thermophilic, according to the identified key environmental drivers (i.e., temperature and vegetation) for their abundances. The mammal species with the highest relative abundance were bharal (Pseudois nayaur), Moupin pika (Ochotona thibetana), and Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana). The bird species with highest relative abundance were snow partridge (Lerwa lerwa), plain mountain finch (Leucosticte nemoricola), Chinese monal (Lophophorus lhuysii), and alpine accentor (Prunella collaris).

Mammal distribution and trends in the threatened Ebo 'intact forest landscape', Cameroon

Intact forest landscapes (IFLs) are globally important for maintaining functional ecosystems. Ebo forest (~1400 km2) in Cameroon is one of the largest remaining IFLs in the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forest ecoregion and harbours several IUCN Red-Listed threatened mammal species. We evaluated the status, trends, and distribution of mammals ≥ 0.5 kg in the Ebo forest over 12 years using guided recce and camera trap monitoring surveys, as well as local knowledge to inform future land use and conservation planning. Recce monitoring of six taxa (blue duiker Philantomba monticola, chimpanzee Pan troglodytes, forest elephant Loxodonta cyclotis, putty-nosed monkey Cercopithecus nictitans, medium sized duikers Cephalophus spp., and red river hog Potamochoerus porcus) showed that some are stable or increasing. Indeed, our recent camera trap data confirmed breeding Gorilla gorilla (western gorilla) and elephant. Distribution models for chimpanzees and elephants showed that their populations are concentrated in the centre of the forest, away from human pressure. Some other species, however, including red colobus Piliocolobus preussi, leopard Panthera pardus, African golden cat Caracal aurata, and forest buffalo Syncerus caffer nanus are either close to extirpation or have been extirpated within living memory. We conclude that the Ebo intact forest landscape retains an important mammal community, despite no formal legal protection. Ebo’s future is uncertain, with two commercial logging concessions announced by Cameroon in 2020 and later suspended in response to national and international pressure. It is crucial to maintain Ebo’s integrity to protect the biodiversity and function of this important part of the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forest ecoregion.

Differences in social-space\u2013time behaviour of two red deer herds (Cervus elaphus)

Social-space–time-behaviour has developed very differently (e.g. a, loner, a herd, a pack) in the animal kingdom and depends on many different factors, like food availability, competition, predator avoidance or disturbances. It is known, that red deer are differently distributed in human disturbed areas compared to areas with less anthropogenic influences. But knowledge about the potential influence of human presence on social associations and interactions is rare, albeit differences may result in changing impacts on the environment, such as habitat utilization and feeding damage. Therefore, we investigated differences in the space use and social association of red deer. We studied two radio-collared herds of non-migratory populations in two study areas, which were comparable in landscape structure and vegetation structure, but differed in accessibility for visitors and the extent of their presence. Between the two study sites we compared the home range size, the differences in the extent of home range overlap within each study site and the space–time association (Jacobs Index) of individuals. Additionally, we present data on seasonal variations of home range sizes and social association all year round. In order to compare human activity in the study sites, we used the data from our long-term camera trap monitoring. The herd in the area with more human activity had significantly smaller home ranges and had greater year-round social associations in almost all seasons, except summer. We assume that smaller home ranges and higher association between animals may result in a higher feeding pressure on plants and a patchier utilization in areas with higher disturbances.

Site and species contribution to β-diversity in terrestrial mammal communities: Evidence from multiple Neotropical forest sites

In a scenario where escalating human activities lead to several environmental changes and, consequently, affect mammal abundance and distribution, β-diversity may increase due to differences among sites. Using the ecological uniqueness approach, we analyzed β-diversity patterns of ground-dwelling mammal communities recorded through comprehensive camera trap monitoring within eight tropical forests protected areas in Mesoamerica and South America under variable landscape contexts. We aimed to investigate whether the contribution of single sites (LCBD) and single species (SCBD) to overall β-diversity could be explained by community metrics and environmental variables, and by species metrics and biological traits, respectively. Total β-diversity was also partitioned into species replacement and richness difference. We related LCBD to species richness, total relative abundance, functional indices, and environmental variables (tree basal area, protected area size, NDVI, and precipitation seasonality), and SCBD to species naïve occupancy, relative abundance, and morphoecological traits via beta regression. Our findings showed that LCBD was primarily explained by variation in species richness, rather than relative abundance and functional metrics. Protected area size and tree basal area were also important in explaining variation in LCBD. SCBD was strongly related to naïve occupancy and relative abundance, but not to biological traits, such as body mass, trophic energy level, activity cycle, and taxonomic category. Local β-diversity was a result of species replacements and to a lesser extent differences in species richness. Our approach was useful in examining and comparing the ecological uniqueness among different sites, revealing the regional scale current status of mammal diversity. High LCBD values comprised sites embedded within smaller habitat extents, hosting lower tree basal areas, and harboring low species richness. SCBD showed that relatively ubiquitous species that occur at variable abundances across sites contributed most to β-diversity.

Integrating harvest and camera trap data in species distribution models

Wildlife managers need reliable information on species distributions (i.e. patterns of occurrence and abundance) to make effective decisions. Historically, managers have relied on harvest records (collected at broad spatial extents but coarse resolution) to monitor wildlife populations. However, emerging citizen-science datastreams can potentially supplement harvest-based monitoring by providing fine-resolution data that permit identification of species-environment relationships needed to predict occurrence and abundance. We combined harvest records and citizen-science camera-trap data in integrated species distribution models (iSDMs) to estimate species-environment relationships and distribution patterns of six wildlife species in Wisconsin, USA. We expected that iSDMs would more precisely estimate species-environment relationships and predict spatial abundance patterns intermediate between camera- and harvest-only SDMs. We also conducted simulations to explore the consequences of incomplete knowledge of harvest effort for estimates of abundance and species-environment relationships. Integrated models produced more precise species-environment relationships than camera-only models in 53% of the relationships we tested; all harvest-only models failed to converge. Moreover, integrated and camera-only models showed low agreement (mean: 19.67%) in identifying abundance “hotspots” but considerably higher agreement (mean: 45.17%) in identifying abundance “cold spots”. Our simulations showed that abundance patterns estimated by iSDMs may suffer from imprecision if harvest effort is poorly measured. We recommend that harvest records be collected at finer spatial resolutions and be paired with in-depth effort reporting. Our work demonstrates the potential for integrating an existing datastream (harvest records) with an emerging one (citizen-science camera-trap monitoring) for modeling species distributions and providing support for wildlife management decisions.

Does aerial baiting for controlling feral cats in a heterogeneous landscape confer benefits to a threatened native meso-predator?

Introduced mammalian predators can have devastating impacts on recipient ecosystems and disrupt native predator–prey relationships. Feral cats (Felis catus) have been implicated in the decline and extinction of many Australian native species and developing effective and affordable methods to control them is a national priority. While there has been considerable progress in the lethal control of feral cats, effective management at landscape scales has proved challenging. Justification of the allocation of resources to feral cat control programs requires demonstration of the conservation benefit baiting provides to native species susceptible to cat predation. Here, we examined the effectiveness of a landscape-scale Eradicat® baiting program to protect threatened northern quolls (Dasyurus hallucatus) from feral cat predation in a heterogeneous rocky landscape in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. We used camera traps and GPS collars fitted to feral cats to monitor changes in activity patterns of feral cats and northern quolls at a baited treatment site and unbaited reference site over four years. Feral cat populations appeared to be naturally sparse in our study area, and camera trap monitoring showed no significant effect of baiting on cat detections. However, mortality rates of collared feral cats ranged from 18–33% after baiting, indicating that the program was reducing cat numbers. Our study demonstrated that feral cat baiting had a positive effect on northern quoll populations, with evidence of range expansion at the treatment site. We suggest that the rugged rocky habitat preferred by northern quolls in the Pilbara buffered them to some extent from feral cat predation, and baiting was sufficient to demonstrate a positive effect in this relatively short-term project. A more strategic approach to feral cat management is likely to be required in the longer-term to maximise the efficacy of control programs and thereby improve the conservation outlook for susceptible threatened fauna.

Tropical mammal functional diversity increases with productivity but decreases with anthropogenic disturbance.

A variety of factors can affect the biodiversity of tropical mammal communities, but their relative importance and directionality remain uncertain. Previous global investigations of mammal functional diversity have relied on range maps instead of observational data to determine community composition. We test the effects of species pools, habitat heterogeneity, primary productivity and human disturbance on the functional diversity (dispersion and richness) of mammal communities using the largest standardized tropical forest camera trap monitoring system, the Tropical Ecology Assessment and Monitoring (TEAM) Network. We use occupancy values derived from the camera trap data to calculate occupancy-weighted functional diversity and use Bayesian generalized linear regression to determine the effects of multiple predictors. Mammal community functional dispersion increased with primary productivity, while functional richness decreased with human-induced local extinctions and was significantly lower in Madagascar than other tropical regions. The significant positive relationship between functional dispersion and productivity was evident only when functional dispersion was weighted by species' occupancies. Thus, observational data from standardized monitoring can reveal the drivers of mammal communities in ways that are not readily apparent from range map-based studies. The positive association between occupancy-weighted functional dispersion of tropical forest mammal communities and primary productivity suggests that unique functional traits may be more beneficial in more productive ecosystems and may allow species to persist at higher abundances.

How can spatio-temporal overlap in mammals assist in maximizing biodiversity conservation? A case study of Periyar Tiger Reserve

While global mammalian diversity is collapsing due to increased poaching and habitat loss, evidence-based conservation in protected areas is often regarded as a panacea. Tiger reserves in India set an example, where annual camera trap monitoring is conducted for understanding the trends in the tiger population. However, less is known about other co-predators and their prey species that occur in the same area. The fundamental hindrance being the absence of individual pelage pattern within these species (i.e. unique pattern on the body), as well as the absence of species-specific monitoring. As a result, there is a demand in techniques that can avail maximum biodiversity information from the existing monitoring protocols. Here, we conducted camera trapping in Periyar Tiger Reserve to evaluate spatiotemporal overlaps within different carnivores, and between prey-predators. Camera trapping was conducted at high resolution (2 km2) for 30 days at 253 locations that yielded 6092 photographs of 18 mammals. Their temporal overlap was estimated using ‘overlap’ R package, while the spatial association was estimated using ‘co-occur’ package. Three large-ranging top predators (tiger, leopard and dhole) were found to have activity peaks segregated temporally. Relationship of these predators with their prey species highlighted the role of body sizes, where largest predator (tiger) had higher overlap with large-bodied prey (gaur and sambar), while small-bodied predator (leopard and dhole) overlapped small-bodied prey (barking deer and wild pig). Results highlight the importance of large-sized prey in conserving the tiger densities of this region. However, selectively conserving only large-bodied prey can have repercussions on other sympatric carnivores, who require different body-sized prey species. Our results have implications for all protected areas in the tropical developing countries, which are mostly smaller in area with species-centered conservation agenda. We highlight the importance of considering species-specific carrying capacity of all co-predators in the region, to optimally conserve the prey-base through habitat restoration, so as to maximize biodiversity conservation within a limited area.

Using surveillance cameras to analyze the activity pattern of the Eurasian otters (<i>Lutra lutra</i>) and the efficiency of camera trap monitoring

Using surveillance cameras to analyze the activity pattern of the Eurasian otters (<i>Lutra lutra</i>) and the efficiency of camera trap monitoring

Tiger reappearance in Bhutan’s Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary: a case for maintaining effective corridors and metapopulations

The tiger Panthera tigris is globally ‘Endangered’ (Goodrich et al., 2015). The Himalayan Kingdom of Bhutan is an important stronghold (Tempa et al., 2019) for this ecologically and economically important apex predator (Estes et al., 2011; Thinley et al., 2018). Here, we report the reappearance of the tiger in Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary (BWS) in north-eastern Bhutan (Fig. 1a), after a likely absence of 12 years. Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary is bordered by China in the north and India in the east, and covers 1520 km2 across the districts of Trashiyangtse, Mongar and Lhuentse (Fig. 1a). Altitudes range from 1500 to 6450 m above sea level and the sanctuary contains 745, 42 and 334 species of plants, mammals and birds, respectively (BWS, 2013). Other large predators present in the sanctuary include the snow leopard P. uncia, common leopard P. pardus and dhole Cuon alpinus. They subsist on a diverse ungulate community comprising sambar Rusa unicolor, muntjac Muntiacus muntjac, blue sheep Pseudois nayaur, musk deer Moschus chrysogaster, serow Capricornis thar and goral Naemorhedus goral. There are approximately 800 people who are resident in BWS, predominantly living as subsistence agro-pastoralists (BWS, 2013). Evidence of tiger presence in BWS was initially based on an anecdotal sighting at Thiling village in Sherimuhung Geog in 2001 (subdistrict; Fig. 1b); a claim of 12 yaks predated by tiger between 2003 and 2004 at Rongmateng village in Khoma Geog (Fig. 1b); and sanctuary personnel documenting tiger pugmarks in 2004 at Dongla within Yangtse Geog (Fig. 1b). However, camera trapping in BWS after 2004, including a comprehensive National Tiger Survey (NTS) from 2014 to 2015, failed to capture any tiger images (Thinley et al., 2015). This absence of sightings puzzled local tiger biologists, given the historic presence of tigers in the area, adequate prey availability, minimal hunting and no tiger poaching. Dissatisfied by the poor camera trapping results, sanctuary staff intensified field surveys in 2016 and a tiger pugmark was detected above Rigsumgeonpa monastery in Bumdeling Geog (Fig. 1b). Concurrently, three horses and eight sheep were depredated at Tsango village in Khoma Geog, allegedly by a tiger. Subsequent camera trapping at these livestock predation sites captured 22 tiger images (Fig. 2a,c), confirming at least one individual’s presence within BWS. Opportunistic camera trapping exercises in 2017 yielded nine tiger images (Fig. 2d) near Pangliwog village in Bumdeling Geog, and five images in Sherimuhung Geog. A 2018–2019 study of wildlife in water catchments in BWS and its environs yielded further three tiger images (Fig. 2e) above Gangkardung village in Bumdeling Geog within BWS, and 11 images (Fig. 2b) outside BWS and above Bayling and Bimkhar villages in Yangtse Geog. Analysis of all 50 images revealed a single male tiger, which did not match any of the 68 individual tigers identified in the NTS. This animal could have been an irregular transient not detected in pre-2016 camera trapping, but now resident at BWS. It is unlikely to have ranged from China or India given the functional extinction of the tiger in China (Qin et al., 2015), and no existing tiger records in India adjacent to BWS, due to rampant poaching (Passang Dorji, Forest Ranger, Trashiyangtse Range, Pers. Comm.). The male tiger in BWS is more likely to have originated from populations (Tempa et al., 2019) in either Wangchuck Centennial National Park via Corridor 8, or from Phrumsengla National Park via Corridor 7 (Fig. 1a). The reappearance of the tiger in BWS showcases the effective functionality of Bhutan’s biological corridors. Ensuring this and other tigers’ future survival in BWS entails regular anti-poaching patrols and camera trap monitoring; compensation or insurance programs to offset tiger-related livestock depredation; and designation of a corridor connecting BWS to Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary (SWS; Fig. 1a). SWS is also linked to Jhomotshangkha Wildlife Sanctuary (JWS; Fig. 1a); both sanctuaries recorded tigers during the NTS, potentially harboring important metapopulations. Radio-collaring of tigers in BWS, SWS and JWS will substantiate ecological research on these metapopulations and confirm the functionality of associated corridors.

Breaking barriers: Iberian Lynx Lynx pardinus Temminck, 1827 (Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae) colonizing Olive groves

In recent years, the Andújar-Cardeña Iberian Lynx Lynx pardinus population has grown both in number and in occupied surface area. This feline has spread into areas surrounding existing population nuclei and occupied new habitats including human-dominated areas and tree crops. Here we describe this colonization process and the evolution of the Iberian Lynx populations in the Olive Olea europaea groves that surround typical Lynx scrub habitats in Andújar-Cardeña. Our findings were obtained through radio-tracking, camera trapping and European Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus monitoring. Two colonized areas—Zocueca and Marmolejo-Montoro—were identified in which Olive cultivation is predominant. Since 2011, a total of 45 and 50 different individuals have been detected in Zocueca and Marmolejo-Montoro, respectively. At present, 19 individuals are known to live in Zocueca and 29 in Marmolejo-Montoro. The main cause of mortality is road-kills. Our results suggest that the Iberian Lynx is capable of colonizing human-modified areas such as agricultural land provided that they can support high-density Rabbit populations and the causes of non-natural mortality are minimized.

Progress overview of the camera-trapping monitoring platform for the Qianjiangyuan National Park, Zhejiang Province

Progress overview of the camera-trapping monitoring platform for the Qianjiangyuan National Park, Zhejiang Province

Camera-trapping monitoring platform for mammals and pheasants in the Longitudinal Range and Gorge Region of Southwest China: Protocol, progress and future outlook

Camera-trapping monitoring platform for mammals and pheasants in the Longitudinal Range and Gorge Region of Southwest China: Protocol, progress and future outlook

China’s wildlife camera-trap monitoring needs a unified standard

China’s wildlife camera-trap monitoring needs a unified standard

Overview of Sanjiangyuan Community-based Camera-trapping Monitoring Platform

Overview of Sanjiangyuan Community-based Camera-trapping Monitoring Platform

A Study of Population Size and Activity Patterns and Their Relationship to the Prey Species of the Eurasian Lynx Using a Camera Trapping Approach.

Simple SummaryThe Eurasian lynx has a wide distribution range in China, but lynx field studies in China are rare compared to those for European populations. Using camera trapping data, this paper reports the lynx population size, activity patterns, and variation within the prey community at a nature reserve in Inner Mongolia. The results found that there were at least 20 lynx in this reserve, and the population has increased steadily over years. There is a seasonal difference in the daily activity rhythms of lynx. The total activity rhythm of lynx is synchronous with five mammal species: hare, red deer, wild boar, raccoon dog, and badger. Red fox and roe deer showed a timed avoidance of lynx to some extent. The present study sets an example for biodiversity conservation; the recovery of prey communities through habitat management should be a priority in determining the restoration of large carnivore populations in China.Revealing the behavioral relationships between predators and their prey is fundamental in understanding the community structure and ecosystem functions of such animals. This study aimed at detecting the population size and activity patterns of Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) (along with its prey) by camera trapping monitoring from 2014 to 2017 at the Saihanwula nature reserve in central Inner Mongolia. The total effective trapping days were 29,892 and 20 lynx were identified from 343 trapping photos based on the inner side patterns of their forelimbs. The daily activity rhythms of the lynx overlapped with those of different prey in different seasons. The yearly activity pattern of the lynx was influenced by its main prey’s biology. In conclusion, this study reveals that the activity patterns of the top predator matched those of its prey in different time periods. Habitat management strategies promoting the restoration of prey communities would benefit the lynx in maintaining a stable community structure.

Diurnal motor activity and \u201csunbathing\u201d behaviour in crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata L., 1758)

The crested porcupine is a mainly nocturnal mammal that shows both moonlight avoidance and some diurnal motor activity, the latter as an extension of its night-time foraging behaviour. Furthermore, a peculiar daytime behaviour, described as “sunbathing”, was reported as episodic in H. africaeaustralis. Between 2016 and 2019 a camera-trapping monitoring was performed within 10 porcupine settlements in order to detect the diurnal motor activity and to verify and describe the sunbathing behaviour in crested porcupine. Out of 1,003 trap days, a total of 148 events of diurnal motor activity were recorded. The diurnal motor activity occurred throughout the year mainly between December and June from 15:00 to 16:00, with no statistical difference between cubs, youngsters and adults. The sunbathing behaviour was detected for a total of 36 episodes recorded. Sunbathing was performed mainly by cubs. The sunbathing behaviour occurred only between April and June during the hottest hours of the day (11:00 to 12:00). Diurnal motor activity and sunbathing behaviour of porcupine are discussed in relation to food availability and porcupine physiology.

AN UPDATED SPECIES LIST OF MEDIUM AND LARGE-SIZED MAMMALS OF THE AUGUSTO RUSCHI BIOLOGICAL RESERVE, USING A NOVEL SAMPLING DESIGN

Monitoring biological communities through time helps reveal the state of habitat conservation. We performed a new inventory of the medium and large-sized mammals in the Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve, southeastern Brazil. Our assessment was based on a new camera-trapping sampling design that incorporates a one-year Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) to characterize environmental heterogeneity across the study area. We selected sampling locations in different microhabitats to conduct a 90-day camera trap monitoring. Our sampling effort was 28,704 hours, resulting in 755 photographic records, from which we identified 15 native medium and large-sized mammals, one small-sized mammal ( Guerlinguetus brasiliensis ), and one exotic species ( Canis familiaris ). The native mammals included four species not listed in the last inventory carried out in the study area: Dasypus novemcinctus (nine-banded armadillo), Tamandua tetradactyla (collared anteater), Herpailurus yagouaroundi (jaguarundi), and Cerdocyon thous (crab-eating fox). This outcome may indicate the efficiency of our sampling design, which represents an innovative approach to characterizing local mammal communities across an environmental gradient, ensuring broad representation of different resources and habitat characteristics. Consequently, our approach may ensure the recording of the local mammal assemblage and is an appropriate option for inventorying and monitoring medium to large-sized mammals.

Prey availability and temporal partitioning modulate felid coexistence in Neotropical forests.

Carnivores have long been used as model organisms to examine mechanisms that allow coexistence among ecologically similar species. Interactions between carnivores, including competition and predation, comprise important processes regulating local community structure and diversity. We use data from an intensive camera-trapping monitoring program across eight Neotropical forest sites to describe the patterns of spatiotemporal organization of a guild of five sympatric cat species: jaguar (Panthera onca), puma (Puma concolor), ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), jaguarundi (Herpailurus yagouaroundi) and margay (Leopardus wiedii). For the three largest cat species, we developed multi-stage occupancy models accounting for habitat characteristics (landscape complexity and prey availability) and models accounting for species interactions (occupancy estimates of potential competitor cat species). Patterns of habitat-use were best explained by prey availability, rather than habitat structure or species interactions, with no evidence of negative associations of jaguar on puma and ocelot occupancy or puma on ocelot occupancy. We further explore temporal activity patterns and overlap of all five felid species. We observed a moderate temporal overlap between jaguar, puma and ocelot, with differences in their activity peaks, whereas higher temporal partitioning was observed between jaguarundi and both ocelot and margay. Lastly, we conducted temporal overlap analysis and calculated species activity levels across study sites to explore if shifts in daily activity within species can be explained by varying levels of local competition pressure. Activity patterns of ocelots, jaguarundis and margays were similarly bimodal across sites, but pumas exhibited irregular activity patterns, most likely as a response to jaguar activity. Activity levels were similar among sites and observed differences were unrelated to competition or intraguild killing risk. Our study reveals apparent spatial and temporal partitioning for most of the species pairs analyzed, with prey abundance being more important than species interactions in governing the local occurrence and spatial distribution of Neotropical forest felids.

Bait effectiveness in camera trap studies in the Iberian Peninsula

A wide variety of baits is used in camera trap studies, but few have been validated to obtain optimal and comparable results. The present study aimed to analyze the effectiveness of different baits commonly used in camera trap studies in the Iberian Peninsula. First, a bibliographic review was performed in order to identify the most common baits. Then, an intensive camera trap monitoring program was carried out with the identified baits. Finally, we estimate the effect of bait type on the average detection of several target and nontarget mammal species. Results show that chicken- and fish-baited cameras produced satisfactory results for targeted species. Chicken meat showed higher detection for badgers, stone martens, and common genets. Canned sardines in vegetable oil resulted an attractive bait for red foxes and feral dogs. Unbaited cameras, vegetable-based baits, or scats and urine as operational attractants resulted ineffective baits for mesocarnivores, with the exception of feral cats. A variety of baits has been used for mesocarnivore inventories or single-species studies in the Iberian Peninsula. In consequence, most of these inventories and studies cannot be fully compared. Moreover, as baits are not equally effective, diversity and abundance data could be underestimated and compromise the quality of the survey data. The present results highlight the need for standardized methods in camera trap studies to follow a replicable methodology in order to obtain feasible and comparable results among studies.