Cage Eggs Research Articles

The Relationship between Animal Welfare and Farm Profitability in Cage and Free-Range Housing Systems for Laying Hens in China.

Simple SummaryWith public concern increasing in China for animal welfare in livestock production, the welfare and economic outcomes of different farming systems for laying hens needs to be examined. Animal welfare outcomes and initiatives are linked to the economic efficiency of the farm, which for the producer may require a balance or trade-off between these issues. This study investigated animal welfare, egg production and economic parameters in cage and free-range farms in China. Our results identified potential welfare issues that can be addressed on both farm types, and potential points of income that can be improved by enhancing hen welfare. Therefore, our results offer some directions for welfare and economic improvements on cage and free-range egg farms in China.Several countries and regions have regulations in place to provide standards for the welfare of production animals, which have implications for breeding, management and trade. In the chicken egg production industry, the welfare impacts of this are not well understood. In the past decades, free-range systems were widely used for local chicken breeds in poultry industry in China, but their use has gradually declined due to the lower competitiveness compared to commercial cage systems. However, the practices of free-range systems for hens raising have gradually increased again over the past decade, as consumer individualized demand for higher food quality and animal welfare has increased. We recruited 14 free-range farms and 45 cage farms from Beijing, Shandong, Hebei, Anhui, Yunnan, Gansu and Jiangsu provinces in China, for an evaluation of hen welfare, production and economic outcomes from farm operations. This study provides data for the welfare outcomes of laying hens in China and preliminarily explored the relationship between welfare level and economic income within farming system types. The researchers visited the farms and used Welfare Quality measures to investigate the welfare, and farm self-reported profits. Nonparametric Mann–Whitney U tests were used to compare the welfare scores between cage and free-range rearing farms. Correlation and regression are used for the analysis of the animal welfare scores, economic data, and production metrics. The general income from free-range farms was linearly correlated with red mite score and stocking density (p < 0.001 and p < 0.05, respectively). The results showed less centimeters of feeder and drinker space per animal in the free-range system than in cage systems (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively). Welfare scores for both the stocking density and beak condition were significantly better in the free-range systems than the cage systems (p < 0.001), as were qualitative behavior assessment scores (p < 0.05). The total egg production and peak egg production in cage farms were much higher than in free-range farms (p < 0.001), and egg loss rate was significantly lower (p < 0.001). While the production efficiency of free-range farms was lower than that of cage farms, general income per 10,000 hens was actually higher. Our results provide some evidence that some welfare indicators and general income (per 10,000 hens) in free-range farms in China were better than those of cage farms. The results indicate that better parasite control and lower stocking densities may result in improved hen welfare on free-range farms and potentially improve profitability. The level of welfare and economic benefits of free-range farms vary widely, and there was potential room for improvement in feeding space, drinking water space and human–animal relationship.

Quality of Table Eggs from Different Production Systems

Summary The production system is one of the most significant factors influencing internal and external egg quality. Due to concerns for the welfare of laying hens, and on the basis of Council Directive 1999/74/EC, EU countries banned conventional cages, so it is necessary to determine the influence of alternative systems on the external and internal quality traits of table eggs. Consumers believe that organic eggs are healthier than eggs from the conventional production systems. In addition, consumer awareness of the welfare of laying hens has been raised in the last few decades. This research aimed to determine the quality of table eggs from the cage, free-range and organic systems that are present on the Serbian market. External and internal quality traits were examined for 30 eggs taken from the market from the cage, organic and free-range systems. The value of Haugh units was 77.16 for organic eggs, 66.01 for conventional cages, and 62.01 for free-range system. The results showed that eggs from the organic system had significantly higher egg weight, shape index, albumen height, and Haugh units (p≤0.05) compared to cage and free-range eggs. Eggs from the free-range system had the highest number of meat and blood spots (2.25), while it was the lowest in eggs from the cage system (0.40). Eggs from organic production and conventional cages showed better results in internal and external egg quality. Shell quality traits, yolk color, and yolk pH were not affected by the production system.

Kafes Sistemi ve Yerleşim Sıklığının Yumurta Tavuklarının Performansı, Yumurta Kalitesi ve Yumurta Kabuğunun Mikrobiyal Yükü Üzerine Etkisi

This study was carried out to determine the effects of two different cage systems (enriched and conventional) and low and high stocking densities on performance, egg quality and egg shell microorganisms. In study, two different genotypes were used to native (Atak-S) and foreign (Lohmann) hens occurred of 864 hens used. As the cage system, the battery type was used in the conventional system and the enriched cage type was used in the alternative system. The results indicated that genotype and cage system significantly affected egg production and egg mass in the laying period (18-76 weeks). It was determined that Lohmann genotype and conventional cages had significantly higher egg production and egg mass in this period. It was seen that hens consumed significantly higher feed in enriched cages than in conventional cages, and were significantly better feed conversion ratio in low stocking density compared to high stocking density. The effects of genotype and cages system on the quality characteristics of eggs were found to be significant, and it was determined quality characteristics of Lohmann eggs were better (especially eggshell quality. In addition, it was understood that the internal quality of the eggs in the conventional cages and the external quality characteristics of the eggs in the enriched system were positively affected. The total numbers of microorganisms were determined to be higher on shell of eggs from enriched cages than conventional cages. The total numbers of microorganisms were higher in enriched cage eggs compared to conventional cage eggs. However, stocking density was not a significant effect on the microbial load of the eggshell.

The effects of cage type, oviposition time and egg storage period on the egg quality characteristics of laying hens

Egg has valuable nutrients however; these nutrients may be affected by many factors. In this study, it was aimed to determine the effects of cage type, oviposition time and egg storage period on egg quality characteristics of laying hens. A total of 410 eggs were collected from unenriched and enriched cages in the morning and in the afternoon. After the eggs were weighed, they were stored at 21oC and 20% relative humidity until the 30th day of storage. It was determined that unenriched cage eggs had higher in shell breaking strength, albumen ash and pH &amp;amp; lipid of yolk and lower egg weight loss, yolk index &amp;amp; yolk color compared with enriched cage eggs. Morning eggs had the highest egg weight loss and the lowest egg weight, yolk height and yolk diameter. Dry matter &amp;amp; protein of albumen and dry matter &amp;amp; lipid of yolk were lower, while protein of yolk was higher in the morning eggs than those in the afternoon. It was observed that the storage period was important factor for egg quality characteristics. The effect of oviposition time and storage period interaction on egg quality should not be neglected. Interactions between cage type and storage period and between oviposition time and storage period were found statistically significant for some chemical composition of albumen and yolk. It is concluded that A quality egg criteria are preserved up to 14 days at an average temperature of 21°C and 20% humidity.

A test of the use of gray wolf (Canis lupus) urine to reduce coyote (Canis latrans) depredation rates on loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) nests

Loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) are currently listed as vulnerable, with a decreasing population trend, by the International Union of Conservation of Nature. From 2015 to 2019, coyotes (Canis latrans) depredated 24.12% of loggerhead nests on the night they were laid on South Island beach at the Tom Yawkey Wildlife Center, near Georgetown, SC, resulting in an estimated 3816 eggs lost each year. Over that time, a South Carolina Department of Natural Resources Turtle Technician Team patrolled the beach at dawn every morning to cage and catalog loggerhead nests and eggs but were unable to cost-effectively protect the nests the night the eggs were laid. To test a new method to dissuade coyote depredation, we used dispensers filled with gray wolf (Canis lupus) urine to simulate wolf activity on seven sections of the beach and left seven sections untreated as controls. We observed a significant reduction in depredation rates where urine was present relative to control areas (G-test adjusted with the Williams correction, G = 5.749, df = 1, p = 0.0165). The results suggest this may be an example of exploitative competition in the absence of interference competition. With daily teams already patrolling the beaches, using wolf urine as a deterrent could be an inexpensive, non-invasive way to reduce coyote depredation on loggerhead and other sea turtle nests elsewhere.

Evaluating the sustainability of egg production in Turkey: A standardized data approach

This study aimed to evaluate egg production systems within the scope of sustainability criteria under Turkey conditions. A standardized data approach was used to measure sustainability and compare egg production systems. The study covered a one-year egg-laying cycle of 24 farms including conventional cage, organic, and free-range systems. Hens in conventional cages had higher egg production and lower feed intake compared to hens in organic and free-range systems. The highest mortality was found in the free-range hens while the lowest was in the conventional cage system. All hens were fully feathered in the organic egg production system, which was followed, by free-range and conventional cage. This result led to a better social sustainability score for non-cage systems. Economic issues of sustainability had higher scores in conventional cage and organic egg production than those in the free-range system. The hen number per m2 in the total farm area was lower in organic and free-range than those in conventional cage systems (P=0.003), nonetheless, the total land occupation area was found similar. The standardized data used in this study shows that management practices should be improved in free-range and organic egg production systems to achieve higher sustainability scores in Turkey.

Fertility of Uncontrolled Village Flock Eggs and Comparison of Quality Traits of Table-Eggs Produced in Different Production Systems

In this study, the eggs produced in uncontrolled village conditions were compared to free-range, organic and cage-system in two seasons, in autumn and spring, in terms of external and internal quality traits. In the autumn and spring period, 110 eggs were collected from the village eggs and 50 eggs from other production systems. In order to determine the fertility in the village eggs, 60 eggs were placed in a laboratory type incubator in both seasons and fertility control was made at the 18th day. All data of egg quality traits were performed by taking the average of the two seasons. Egg shape index, shell ratio, shell thickness, shell cleanness, shell defects, albumen and yolk traits differed significantly among production systems (P &lt; 0.05). The lowest shape index, shell thickness and shell cleanness were found in village eggs. Higher shell rates were determined from eggs in cage and organic production compared to others (P &lt; 0.05). The yolk height and yolk index were the lowest and the yolk colors were the darkest in the white cage eggs (P &lt; 0.05). Brown cage eggs showed the better results in the majority of their quality traits. However, they had a higher meat and blood-spot level than other systems. In addition, the presence of cockerels in the village flocks caused the fertile eggs and approximately 85% fertility was obtained. Our results showed that it has become obvious that the village hen and free range hen eggs which can be marketed in high prices compared to the commercial eggs, have no superiority in terms of the traits they are considered. Besides, as they are significantly fertile, especially in hot summer months, according to storage duration and conditions, the probability of embryo development for these eggs has turned to be of high importance for consumption.

Is the farming method (cage, barn, organic) a relevant factor for marketed egg quality traits?

• Farming method affected egg quality traits, but not odour and flavour attributes. • Barn and cage eggs had the heaviest yolk with the highest colour intensity. • Organic eggs showed distinctive physicochemical quality traits. • Barn and cage eggs quality traits changed with sampling period. The present study evaluated the physicochemical and sensory traits of marketed table eggs, deriving from different farming methods (cage, barn, and organic) and sampled in different marketing periods (June, July, September, October). A total of n=540 eggs (n=45 eggs/farming method/sampling period) of “medium” weight-grading were purchased and subjected to physical measurements (shell, yolk, and albumen physical traits), chemical evaluations (proximate composition, cholesterol content and fatty acid profile of the edible portion) and to a descriptive sensory analysis. Results highlighted that eggs physical traits often differed among the considered farming methods: organic eggs had the lowest albumen pH ( P < 0.001) and the highest albumen proportion ( P = 0.004), whereas barn and cage eggs had the highest yolk proportion ( P = 0.026). Barn eggs had the heaviest shell proportion ( P = 0.011), which did not however imply a higher resistance to penetration and compression tests. As expected, egg colour differed according to the farming method with cage eggs displaying the highest overall yolk colour intensity (a*, b* and yolk colour FAN; P < 0.001), followed by barn and organic eggs. The egg marketing period demonstrated to be a relevant factor in determining egg physical attributes too. Surprisingly, organic eggs showed constant albumen, yolk and shell physical characteristics, and yolk colour traits, whereas barn and cage eggs displayed a certain variability in these terms. Cage eggs showed the highest protein ( P = 0.001) and barn eggs the highest lipid ( P = 0.003) contents, whereas cholesterol content was only affected by the marketing period in all three farming methods. Organic eggs were the richest in moisture ( P = 0.003), in polyunsaturated fatty acids (FA) of both n-6 ( P = 0.011) and n-3 series ( P < 0.001), whereas cage ones had the highest saturated ( P = 0.030) and monounsaturated ( P = 0.018) FA. Among the considered sensory traits, farming method only affected the yolk colour intensity, which was the lowest in organic eggs and, for cage and barn eggs, it decreased along the marketing period. Results of the present research indicated that the overall quality of marketed table eggs effectively differs according to the farming method and to the marketing period time which is a relevant information, yet poorly investigated, from the consumer's point of view. Organic eggs were the most distinguishable, especially in terms of yolk colour and nutritional composition.

Comparison between cage and free-range egg production on microbial composition, diversity and the presence of Salmonella enterica

The microbial composition of the food production environment plays an important role in food safety and quality. This study employed both 16 S rRNA gene sequencing technology and culture-based techniques to investigate the bacterial microbiota of an egg production facility comprising of both free-range and conventional cage housing systems. The study also aimed to detect the presence of Salmonella enterica and determine whether its presence was positively or negatively associated with other taxa. Our findings revealed that microbiota profiles of free-range and cage houses differ considerably in relation to the relative abundance and diversity with a number of taxa unique to each system and to individual sampling sites within sheds. Core to each housing system were known inhabitants of the poultry gastrointestinal tracts, Romboutsia and Turicibacter, as well as common spoilage bacteria. Generally, free-range samples contained fewer taxa and were dominated by Staphylococcus equorum, differentiating them from the cage samples. Salmonella enterica was significantly associated with the presence of a taxa belonging to the Carnobacteriaceae family. The results of this study demonstrate that the diversity and composition of the microbiota is highly variable across egg layer housing systems, which could have implications for productivity, food safety and spoilage.

Consumer preferences and sensory characteristics of eggs from family farms.

The objective of this study was to evaluate consumer habits as well as the sensory perception and characteristics of farm eggs produced in Los Ríos, Chile. Data were collected from an online survey of 197 respondents and a sensory evaluation carried out by 30 untrained panelists of 4 types of eggs (brown-shell and blue-shell eggs acquired from family farms, free-range eggs acquired from large, industrial systems, and white-shell cage eggs from industrial, cage systems.) To evaluate differences and preferences, data were analyzed in a GLM. In addition, sensory evaluation was analyzed using principal component analysis. In accordance with the survey, 99% of the participants eat eggs (P < 0.001), 58% eat 1 to 3 eggs/wk, and 84% declared to consume eggs at home (<0.0001). Surveyed participants reported that price and size are the determining factors (31%) when purchasing eggs. Among the physical characteristic for consumers, yolk color was the most important attribute rather than white color, egg appearance, texture, flavor, or odor. In the consumer acceptability test, farm eggs (either brown or blue shell) received the most favorable sensory evaluation by the panel and were preferred to both free-range and white-shell cage eggs. Yolk color was the most influential parameter in making this difference. Brown farm eggs were predominately selected for greatest general satisfaction by participants in both the sensory evaluation (P = 0.008) and in the survey (40%; P = 0.026). There were no differences between farm eggs (brown and blue shell, P > 0.05) in the evaluated parameters. There was a consequence in the information given from surveyed consumers and the sensory panel with the yolk color.

Comparison of the quality of cage and organic eggs available in retail and their content of selected macroelements [pdf

Comparison of the quality of cage and organic eggs available in retail and their content of selected macroelements [pdf

A comparison of eggshell mineral composition between cage and free-range eggs via inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry

Context In Australia and many other countries, free-range eggs can be sold at significantly higher prices than cage eggs. Mislabelling cage eggs as free-range eggs and vice versa has been documented, and has a significant impact on consumer trust and egg consumption. The development of methods to identify eggs produced from different production systems is necessary to satisfy consumer demand. Aims The objective of this study was to determine whether eggshell mineral composition could be used as a way to differentiate eggs originating from each production system. Our hypothesis was that birds with access to soil would have higher levels of trace minerals in shells. Methods Eggs were randomly collected from six commercial caged and six commercial free-range flocks in Australia. Twelve eggshell samples from each flock were analysed for mineral composition (Ca, P, Mg, Na, Al, B, Cu, Mn, Fe, K, S and Zn) by using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry. Key results The results showed that free-range eggshells contained significantly higher contents of macro-minerals (P, Mg and Na) but lower contents of micro-minerals (Cu, Fe, K, S and Mn) than the cage eggshells (P &amp;lt; 0.05). For all minerals measured, a high variability was noted within and between production systems. Conclusions Analysis of eggshell mineral composition may not be effective for determining the origin of eggs. Implications Systematic studies of the bird’s environment, including analysis of mineral composition in diets, pastures, soil and drinking water are required for comprehensive evaluation of the influences of production systems of laying hens on mineral composition of eggs and eggshells.

Salmonella on Australian cage egg farms: Observations from hatching to end of lay

Single-aged caged layer hen flocks were monitored for Salmonella over the course of their lifetime. Chicks from both flocks were Salmonella negative at hatch and remained negative during rearing. Pullets were transported to production farms at 15 weeks of age. Pre-population dust swabs collected from both production sheds had a high percentage of Salmonella positive samples (80 and 90%). Flocks were sampled at regular intervals until 70–72 weeks of age. The proportion of Salmonella positive samples and mean load detected on eggs was low on both farms. Analysis of dust samples revealed that Salmonella persisted in dust over 8 weeks. Dust total moisture content and water activity appears to influence bacterial persistence. On egg grading equipment, only suction cups prior to egg washing were Salmonella positive (mean proportion Salmonella positive samples 0.13 ± 0.07; mean load of 18.6 ± 12.31 MPN/ml). An egg washing experiment demonstrated that while washing reduced the total Salmonella load from eggshell surfaces, no effect was observed for shell pores. These results demonstrate that despite environmental contamination on farm, Salmonella contamination of eggs is low and is further minimized by washing.

Beyond the inside–outside divide: fuzzy-set measurement of configurations of strategies in NGO campaigns

One of the main focal points of studies on interest groups and lobbying has been the different strategies that groups use. Despite the fact that political actions can target both the state and the market, these have not been examined together within either the literature on lobbying or social movements. Moreover, while it is now accepted that groups use combinations of inside and outside strategies, these combinations have been difficult to measure in practice. This paper develops a method for measuring configurations of strategies using principles of qualitative comparative analysis and demonstrates the method’s application to 24 NGO campaigns in Italy and the UK across four issue areas: cage eggs, ocean plastics, antibiotics in farming and digital civil rights. I find that inside and outside strategies are used differently in the state and the market, and that market strategies can be used either to supplement lobbying on public policy or to directly target companies. These findings imply that it is worthwhile including market strategies in studies, as they improve our understanding of the ways in which NGOs address different audiences while lobbying.

Classification of Hen Eggs by HPLC-UV Fingerprinting and Chemometric Methods.

Hen eggs are classified into four groups according to their production method: Organic, free-range, barn, or caged. It is known that a fraudulent practice is the misrepresentation of a high-quality egg with a lower one. In this work, high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection (HPLC-UV) fingerprints were proposed as a source of potential chemical descriptors to achieve the classification of hen eggs according to their labelled type. A reversed-phase separation was optimized to obtain discriminant enough chromatographic fingerprints, which were subsequently processed by means of principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). Particular trends were observed for organic and caged hen eggs by PCA and, as expected, these groupings were improved by PLS-DA. The applicability of the method to distinguish egg manufacturer and size was also studied by PLS-DA, observing variations in the HPLC-UV fingerprints in both cases. Moreover, the classification of higher class eggs, in front of any other with one lower, and hence cheaper, was studied by building paired PLS-DA models, reaching a classification rate of at least 82.6% (100% for organic vs. non-organic hen eggs) and demonstrating the suitability of the proposed method.

Three Release Rates of Dicyphus hesperus (Hemiptera: Miridae) for Management of Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) on Greenhouse Tomato.

The sweetpotato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci, is a pest of greenhouse-grown tomato. Restrictions on insecticides in enclosed structures and the presence of commercial pollinators limit the options for the chemical control of whiteflies in greenhouses, increasing the importance of biological controls. Dicyphus hesperus is a zoophytophagous mirid predator native to North America. Three release rates of D. hesperus were evaluated on greenhouse tomato for control of the sweetpotato whitefly. The release rates were one, two or three adult D. hesperus per tomato plant each week for three weeks in cages containing four tomato plants and one mullein banker plant. There were fewer whitefly eggs in cages receiving predators than untreated cages one week after the third release, and fewer whitefly nymphs in cages receiving predators two weeks after the third release. There were no statistical differences in whitefly eggs or nymphs among predator release treatments. The highest release rate resulted in a 60% reduction in whitefly nymphs. Forty-two days after the first predator releases, there were no differences among release treatments in the number of D. hesperus. Our results indicate that D. hesperus can contribute management of B. tabaci on greenhouse tomato, but that it may be insufficient as a sole strategy.

Evaluation of Quality of Eggs from Hens Kept in Caged and Free-Range Systems Using Traditional Methods and Ultra-Weak Luminescence

The paper presents the results of an evaluation of the quality of eggs from laying hens kept in caged and free range systems using traditional methods and ultra-weak luminescence (USL). It was found that the tested eggs were fresh and were characterized by the required quality, as demonstrated by analysis of the egg white and egg yolk. Eggs from free-range laying hens were characterized by an eight-fold higher emission of photons compared to eggs from caged hens, and they had over three times higher content of natural antioxidants in the form of carotenoids. Most probably, the higher number of photons emitted is associated with a higher content of biologically active substances in the material under study. Photon emission also varies in different ways depending on the specific hen breeding system. Differences in time in the identified maximum values of photon emission result from the composition of individual parts of the egg. Different times in which the emission peaks occurred for free-range eggs and for caged eggs were observed. The application of the USL method in order to confirm its usefulness in the assessment of food quality requires further research.

An experiment on the vote-buy gap with application to cage-free eggs

Why would people vote to ban a product they regularly consume? This question is at the crux of the controversies over a variety of ballot initiatives restricting certain agricultural production practices. This research moves the question to a controlled laboratory setting with real food and real money to explore the underlying causes of the so-called vote-buy gap. Respondents first made a shopping choice between snack options, some of which included eggs from caged hens as an ingredient. After selecting a snack, participants then voted on a proposition to ban snack options that utilized eggs from caged hens. We show that the vote-buy gap can be replicated in the lab: in the control condition, approximately 80% of the individuals who chose snacks with caged eggs when shopping subsequently voted to ban snacks with caged eggs. The finding rules out the suggestion that the vote-buy gap is an illusion or statistical artifact, as it can be re-created in an experimental lab setting at an individual level. A number of experimental treatments were conducted to test hypotheses related to the underlying causes of the vote-buy gap. We found qualified support for the hypothesis that the vote-buy gap is a result of information asymmetries, but little evidence that it results from public good or expressive voting phenomena.

Eggs as a source of selenium in the human diet

The aim of this study was to determine the selenium (Se) levels in the eggs of hens, turkeys, ducks and geese. In the investigated eggs, Se concentration was found to depend on bird species, with the highest concentration seen in geese and turkey eggs and the lowest in duck eggs. Se levels in hen eggs depended also on the husbandry system: the highest mean Se concentration being found in cage eggs and the lowest in barn-laid eggs. In all examined bird species, the highest Se concentration was found in the yolk being 3.0–6.7 times higher than in the albumen. One egg can supply 16–48% of Se RDA (Recommended Dietary Allowance), depending on the bird species. Eggs appear to be a valuable source of Se for humans and can play an important role as a functional food.

The use of metabonomics to uncover differences between the small molecule profiles of eggs from cage and barn housing systems

Metabonomic techniques have been used to observe differences in the small molecule profiles of chicken eggs, to work towards the detection, and thus prevention, of fraud regarding the misrepresentation of egg farming systems. High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Quadrupole-Time-of-Flight-Mass Spectrometry (HPLC-Q-ToF-MS) was used to obtain profiles of the small molecules found in the yolks of eggs that were laid by hens in enriched cage systems, and in barn systems. Statistical analysis of these small molecule profiles, including the use of XCMS Online and multivariate statistics, was able to uncover differences between the yolks of cage and barn eggs. Several unidentified compounds were found to be present in significantly different abundances between cage and barn egg yolks and one of these compounds was tentatively identified, through the use of METLIN, as 1,2-dipalmitoyl-glycero-3-phosphocholine.