Theobroma Cacao Research Articles

Genotyping of cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) germplasm resources with SNP markers linked to agronomic traits reveals signs of selection

The Amazonian cacao tree or the chocolate tree (Theobroma cacao L.) is cultivated to produce seeds, the valuable raw material for the chocolate industry. However, cacao yield is hampered by diseases and low productivity. Cacao single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers associated with breeding and adaptive traits provide a genetic tool for improving selection and reducing breeding cycles. Here, we genotyped 40 published SNPs associated with disease resistance and 11 SNPs with yield traits in 346 accessions using the MassARRAY® system. These 51 SNPs were identified in different breeding experiments in Costa Rica, Brazil, and Trinidad and Tobago. Four genetic clusters were identified, and two of them were observed in high proportion in managed cacao, characterized by a high proportion of admixed individuals reflecting the man-made hybrids. One cluster overrepresented in managed cacao is associated with the preference to keep superior flavor in cultivated cacao from Criollo ancestry. Introgression of wild material collected in Peru associated with disease resistance to witches’ broom disease (WBD) was also observed. Underutilized genetic resources were observed in managed cacao such as the Guiana cacao, while previous agronomic evaluation has demonstrated its good yield potential. Yield and disease resistance traits (mainly resistance to WBD) show divergence between wild and managed cacao (FST > 0.05) probably reflecting selection during domestication, cultivation, and breeding efforts. Eleven SNPs showed a divergence between wild and managed cacao and can be used to build breeding populations. New collections of wild cacao followed by agronomic evaluations can broaden the genetic base of cultivated cacao, especially for such traits as disease resistance to frosty pod rot (FPR).

Alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase upregulated glucose homeostasis in high-fat fed wistar rats supplemented with cocoa flavonoid-rich aqueous

This study investigates the impact of cocoa (Theobroma Cacao L.) flavonoid-rich aqueous supplementation on alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase enzymes, influencing glucose homeostasis in Wistar rats. Over 12 weeks, Wistar rats underwent a high-fat diet induction for obesity. Group assignments included a negative control on a normal diet, a positive control on a normal diet with 600 mg/kg cocoa-containing flavonoid-rich water extract, a fat-treated group on a high-fat diet with the same cocoa extract, and an untreated fat group exclusively on a high-fat diet. The cocoa extract was orally administered for 14 days, evaluating various metabolic parameters. Results showed that the rats displayed improved glucose tolerance, reduced fasting serum glucose, and enhanced insulin sensitivity with increased alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase levels compared to the untreated high-fat group and controls. This study suggests that cocoa-derived polyphenols hold potential in mitigating high-fat diet-induced adverse effects on glucose metabolism by regulating the secretion of alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase in rats.

Impact of Cocoa Seed Extract Toothpaste on Plaque Reduction in Pediatric Populations

Plaque is a soft deposit that forms a helical biofilm layer and attached tightly to the tooth surface, in which its presence requiring the use of specific control agents. The safest and most effective plaque control is to use a toothbrush and toothpaste. On the other hand, extract from Theobroma cacao L. seeds contains antioxidant and antibacterial secondary metabolites which could act as a toothpaste active agent. The aim of this research was to determine the impact of Theobroma cacao L. seeds-added toothpaste in reducing plaque index of among children. This is a non-blinding clinical experiment with a pre-test and post-test research design. The research subjects were 30 healthy children aged 8-10 years which were randomly divided into three arms (treatment and control). The results revealed that Theobroma cacao L. extract used as the active ingredient contained contains phenolics, tannins, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, and alkaloids. Significantly higher plaque index reductions were observed among children treated with toothpaste containing 1% (mean difference=2.060; p=0.06) as compared to control. In conclusion, the Theobroma cacao L. seeds-added toothpaste could significantly reduce plaque index among healthy children.

Optimization of ultrasound-assisted pectin recovery from cocoa by-products using response surface methodology.

This study aimed to address the significant challenges associated with agricultural and cocoa waste disposal within the context of global food waste concerns. The magnitude of global food waste is staggering, estimated at 1.6 Gt of primary product equivalents, with 1.3 Gt attributed specifically to the edible parts of food. Focusing on cocoa waste, which constitutes around 80% of total cocoa production, management poses a considerable environmental challenge, with over 60% of this waste either burnt or left to rot in plantations. Ultrasound-assisted extraction of pectin from cocoa pulp mucilage (CPM), cocoa pod husk (CPH), and cocoa bean shell (CBS) was achieved with a central composite design (CCD) using response surface methodology (RSM). Ultrasound-assisted extraction takes into consideration independent factors such as temperature, sonication time, pH, solid-liquid ratio, and ultrasonic power intensity. This study achieved the highest yield, anhydrouronic acid content, and degree of esterification under optimum conditions - sonication time of 20 min, pH of 2.5, solid-solvent ratio of 1:40 g mL-1, and ultrasonic power intensity of 64 W cm-2. The composition and characterization of pectin showed that its anhydrouronic acid content was 68.59 ± 0.2% when extracted from CPH, 50.7 ± 0.5% when extracted from CBS, and 43.97 ± 0.17% when extracted from CPM with citric acid. This study underscored the potential to reduce the environmental impact of cocoa waste, offering improved pectin extraction and sustainable methods for handling agricultural by-products. It is relevant for individuals interested in waste reduction and resource efficiency within the broader agricultural industry, showcasing the potential for practical and sustainable solutions in cocoa waste management. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

PENINGKATAN MUTU BIJI KAKAO MENGGUNAKAN TEKNOLOGI FERMENTASI DI DESA MASARI, PARIGI MOUTONG

Masari village is one of the cocoa production centers in Parigi Moutong regency, but in recent years cocoa production has decreased. The decline in cocoa production was due to the low selling value of cocoa beans, thereby reducing farmers' income. Farmers uncertain income caused the transition of crop commodities into plantation and food crops. The low selling value of cocoa beans was caused by the low quality of cocoa beans. One of the factors that caused the low quality of beans was post-harvest management, which is the cocoa bean fermentation process that is rarely done by the farmers. This community service program aims to provide knowledge about the correct bean fermentation method so they can improve the quality of cocoa beans. Service activities are carried out using counseling and training methods followed by demonstrations on how to ferment cocoa beans. In general, the counseling activity about the selection of cocoa pods that are ready to be harvested and fermentation procedures went well. The seed demonstration activity was also successful which was indicated by brown cocoa beans and had a fragrant smell. The target community already can carry out a good cocoa bean fermentation process. Cocoa bean fermentation technology can be used to improve the physical and chemical quality of cocoa beans so it can increase the value and sales of cocoa beans. The increase in sales will encourage farmers to develop a cocoa-based farming system.

Bioactives in Cocoa: Novel Findings, Health Benefits, and Extraction Techniques

Theobroma cacao L. seeds, commonly known as cocoa beans, are the foundation for cocoa and chocolate production. Following harvest, these beans undergo a multi-step processing chain including fermentation, drying, roasting, and grinding. This process yields cocoa solids, cocoa butter, and cocoa powder—all fundamental ingredients in the food and beverage industry. Beyond its sensory appeal (flavor, aroma, and texture), cocoa has garnered significant interest for its potential health benefits attributed to a rich profile of bioactive compounds. Cocoa is a well-documented source of polyphenolics, specifically flavanols, alongside methylxanthines, phytosterols, and dietary fibers. These constituents have been associated with a diverse range of bioactivities, including antioxidant, anti-carcinogenic, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, and anti-allergenic properties, potentially contributing to overall health maintenance. Efficient extraction techniques are crucial for maximizing the recovery of these valuable bioactive components from cocoa plant material. Modern methods are continuously being explored to optimize this process. This review focuses on the established health benefits associated with the bioactive compounds present in cocoa. Additionally, it will explore and discuss contemporary approaches for the extraction of these bioactive compounds from this plant source.

The effect of chitin on the effectiveness of Beauveria bassiana formulation product to control cocoa pod borer in vitro

Fungal entomopathogens are suggested to be used as a bioinsecticide due to their biological persistence and ecological friendliness. Beauveria bassiana is an entomopathogenic fungus that can effectively control insect pests, including cocoa pod borer. This study aims to determine the level of effectivity of the B. bassiana (Bb) formulation product from Palu against cocoa pod borer pupae in vitro . This research used a completely randomized design (CRD) consisting of two factors: conidia concentrations and chitin treatments, which were repeated thrice. The conidia concentrations consisted of two levels, that were 106 and 107 conidia/mL. The chitin treatment included seven treatments: isolate from Kediri without formulation with chitin (Bb-K), isolate from Palu without formulation with chitin (Bb-P0), four formulations of isolates from Palu with the addition of chitin to various growth media (Bb-P1, Bb-P2, Bb-P3, and Bb-P4), and control (without Bb suspension). Bb-P0 and Bb-P2 treatments at a concentration of 107conidia/mL began to colonize CPB on the third day after the treatment application, while the other formulations started on the fifth day. However, Bb-P0 showed the lowest infection rate at the end of the observation. Contrarily, the data on the pupa-infected ratio showed that the Bb-P2 treatment was the highest compared to other treatments. It conformed to the adult emergence ratio that Bb-P2 exhibited the lowest, which means Bb-P2 has the most virulence of other formula. The result showed that PDA and PDB media-supplemented chitin was the most effective for culturing B. bassiana origin Palu before mass production.

Physiological responses of young cacao trees to soil water deficiency as affected by Pb pollution and Fe availability

Plants are subject to various abiotic stresses such as water shortage and exposure to heavy metals, such as Pb in soil. These types of stress trigger a series of plant responses, ranging from a decrease in leaf gas exchange, an increase in lipid peroxidation, and even changes in the chemical composition of leaves and roots. As an essential micronutrient, Fe is involved in several physiological and biochemical processes in plants, such as photosynthetic activity, directly participating in chlorophyll synthesis and electron transport, being necessary for the maintenance of the structure and functioning of chloroplasts. The main objective of this work was to evaluate the action of Fe in mitigating Pb toxicity in young plants of the CCN 51 cacao genotype, subjected to water deficit in the soil, through photosynthetic responses and analysis of the chemical composition of different parts of the plant. Plants were grown with Pb (2 mmol Pb kg-1 soil) and different equimolar doses of Pb+Fe in the soil (2+0.5, 2+1, 2+1.5 and 2+2 mmol kg−1 soil), maintaining constant the Pb dose, whose soil was subjected to water deficit, with gradual reduction of water content, or its moisture was maintained near to field capacity, making a total of 12 treatments, together with the control treatment (without addition of Pb and Fe in soil). It was observed that the greater Fe absorbing, by the root system, mitigated the Pb toxicity. Fe application, in adequate dose in soil (2 mmol Pb kg-1 soil + 0.5 mmol Fe kg−1 soil), mitigated the toxic effects caused by Pb and water deficit in the plants, through the greater Fe taking up and translocation for the shoot in Pb detriment. Greater Pb translocation and accumulation in the leaves caused damage to leaf gas exchange and to the accumulation of carbohydrates in leaves. Fe and Pb applied in soil competed with each other for root absorbing regardless of soil water conditions.

Carbon and nutrient cycling in cocoa agroforests under organic and conventional management

In cocoa agroforestry systems, cycling of leaves, pods, and branches are key for organic matter sustenance. We investigated annual total litterfall, annual nutrient stocks in total litterfall, cocoa pods and beans, as well as cocoa leaf decomposition rates in cocoa agroforestry systems under conventional and organic management in Suhum Municipality, Eastern Region of Ghana. The study was conducted using six cocoa agroforests for each management selected from a total of four villages. Litterfall was collected monthly using litterboxes and a litterbag technique was employed to study the rates of leaf decomposition and nutrient release for 12 months. In June and July, total litterfall in organic farms were 94% and 65%, respectively, higher than in conventional farms, but management had no effect on average annual total litterfall of 8.8 t ha−1 yr−1 litterfall. Due to the trees’ reduced transpiration, 61% of the annual total litterfall occurred during the dry season. Whereas average leaf litter nitrogen (N) concentration was 17% higher in the rainy season than dry season, potassium (K) concentration was 38% higher during the dry season than rainy season. This likely reflected the contribution of N rich green leaves to litterfall in the rainy season and plant coping strategy to drought leading to K accumulation. Cocoa leaf decomposition was not affected by management. Annual potassium (K) and calcium (Ca) stocks in cocoa pod husk were four and nine-fold, respectively, higher than in cocoa beans. We conclude that organic versus conventional management had no effect on litterfall and cocoa leaf decomposition rather season influenced litterfall quantity and chemistry. Irrespective of management the spreading of cocoa pod husk after harvest will improve internal nutrient cycling in cocoa agroforestry systems.

Level of Pest Infestation on Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) Variety BL-50 in Tanah Datar Regency, West Sumatera Province, Indonesia

West Sumatra Province is one of the cocoa production centers in Indonesia. Cocoa farmers in the Lima Puluh Kota District in West Sumatera Province had successfully developed a superior clone of cocoa plants resulting from participatory selection, which was later coded BL-50. The main pests that attack cocoa plants are the urgent problem in cocoa cultivation, resulting in decreased productivity. This study aims to determine the level of significant pest attacks on cocoa varieties BL-50 in Tanah Datar Regency. This research is in the form of a survey with a purposive sampling method. Sampling is carried out systematically diagonally in the field. The highest attack rate of Cocoa Fruit Borer in Tanah Datar Regency is in Rambatan District, with the percentage of affected plants, the percentage of infested fruits, and the highest attack intensity, respectively 51,.25%; 31.58% and 21.10%, the lowest were in Lintau Buo Utara District with 30.93%; 20.70% and 13.96%. The highest attack rate of cocoa fruit-sucking ladybugs in the BL-50 variety is in Rambatan District, 66.09%, 45.07%, and 30.45%. At the same time, the lowest is in the Lintau Buo Utara District, with a percentage value of 41.56%, 27.66%, and 18.30%. Excellent and regular land sanitation activities have played a role in minimizing the level of pest attacks in Lintau Buo Utara.

Synergistic microwave and acidic deep eutectic solvent-based pretreatment of Theobroma cacao pod husk biomass for xylooligosaccharides production

The bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass into novel bioproducts is crucial for sustainable biorefineries, providing an integrated solution for circular economy objectives. The current study investigated a novel microwave-assisted acidic deep eutectic solvent (DES) pretreatment of waste cocoa pod husk (CPH) biomass to extract xylooligosaccharides (XOS). The sequential DES (choline chloride/citric acid, molar ratio 1:1) and microwave (450W) pretreatment of CPH biomass was effective in 67.3% xylan removal with a 52% XOS yield from total xylan. Among different XOS of varying degrees of polymerization, a higher xylobiose content corresponding to 69.3% of the total XOS (68.22 mg/g CPH) from liquid fraction was observed. Enzymatic hydrolysis of residual xylan from pretreated CPH biomass with low commercial xylanase (10 IU/g) concentration yielded 24.2% XOS. The MW-ChCl/citric acid synergistic pretreatment approach holds great promise for developing a cost-effective and environmentally friendly method contributing to the sustainable production of XOS from agricultural waste streams.

Three de novo assembled wild cacao genomes from the Upper Amazon

Theobroma cacao, the chocolate tree, is indigenous to the Amazon basin, the greatest biodiversity hotspot on earth. Recent advancement in plant genomics highlights the importance of de novo sequencing of multiple reference genomes to capture the genome diversity present in different cacao populations. In this study, three high-quality chromosome-level genomes of wild cacao were constructed, de novo assembled with HiFi long reads sequencing, and scaffolded using a reference-free strategy. These genomes represent the three most important genetic clusters of cacao trees from the Upper Amazon region. The three wild cacao genomes were compared with two reference genomes of domesticated cacao. The five cacao genetic clusters were inferred to have diverged in the early and middle Pleistocene period, approximately 1.83–0.69 million years ago. The results shown here serve as an example of understanding how the Amazonian biodiversity was developed. The three wild cacao genomes provide valuable resources for studying genetic diversity and advancing genetic improvement of this species.

Development and characterization of microsatellite markers for population genetics of the cocoa pod borer Conopomorpha cramerella (Snellen) (Lepidoptera: Gracillaridae).

The cocoa pod borer (CPB) Conopomorpha cramerella (Snellen) (Lepidoptera: Gracillaridae) is one of the major constraints for cocoa production in South East Asia. In addition to cultural and chemical control methods, autocidal control tactics such as the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) could be an efficient addition to the currently control strategy, however SIT implementation will depend on the population genetics of the targeted pest. The aim of the present work was to search for suitable microsatellite loci in the genome of CPB that is partially sequenced. Twelve microsatellites were initially selected and used to analyze moths collected from Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. A quality control verification process was carried out and seven microsatellites found to be suitable and efficient to distinguish differences between CPB populations from different locations. The selected microsatellites were also tested against a closely related species, i.e. the lychee fruit borer Conopomorpha sinensis (LFB) from Vietnam and eight loci were found to be suitable. The availability of these novel microsatellite loci will provide useful tools for the analysis of the population genetics and gene flow of these pests, to select suitable CPB strains to implement the SIT.

Physical and Chemical Properties of Cocoa Pod Husk Dumpsites in Etung Cocoa Farms Nigeria

Assessment of some physical and chemical properties of cocoa pod husk dumpsites in Etung, Nigeria, was carried out to ascertain the particle size distribution, nutrients, and some soil fertility indices. Five cocoa-growing communities were purposely selected for sampling. Soil samples were collected at 0–25 cm and 25–50 cm in each cocoa farm dumpsite and non-dumpsites in the cocoa plantations. A total of 20 samples were collected, processed, and subjected to standard laboratory analysis. The results obtained indicated that there was no difference in soil textural classes between dumpsites and non-dumpsites on the plantations. pH in dumpsites ranged from 4.2 to 6.0, and plantation soils ranged from 3.9 to 5.6 Electrical conductivity. Surface dumpsite soils ranged from 0.0068 to 0.941 ds/m, and plantation soils ranged from 0.084 to 0.0816 ds/m. Total N in dumpsites ranged from 1.14–1.98% and 0.73–1.08% in plantation soils. P in dumpsites ranged from 9.61 to 13.42 mg/kg and 5.98 to 11.34 mg/kg in plantation soils. Exchange cations were higher in dumpsites than plantation soils. The students T-test (t-0.05) showed significantly higher pH, N, P, organic C, and CEC in dumpsite sites than plantation soils and significantly higher surface than subsurface soil depth. Though nutrient levels were higher in cocoa pod husk dumpsites, the levels were within the sufficiency threshold levels. The higher organic carbon content of cocoa pod husk dumpsites is an indicator of higher soil organic matter content for good sorption and retention of both macro- and micro-cationic nutrients to prevent their excess release that could degrade the soils.

Effect of Fermentation Methods and Turning Interval on the Quality of Cocoa Beans (Theobroma cacao)

Effect of Fermentation Methods and Turning Interval on the Quality of Cocoa Beans (Theobroma cacao)

Shade tree trait diversity and functions in agroforestry systems: A review of which traits matter

Abstract Shade trees in agroforestry systems confer ecosystem services, such as enhanced soil fertility from diverse litter inputs, microclimate regulation via shade, and disease mitigation through trophic and abiotic interactions. With this thriving role of agroforestry in sustainable agriculture, particularly for tree crops, systematic and reliable methods to select shade trees for specific agroecosystem outcomes are crucial. Plant functional traits offer a framework to describe, select and manage shade trees. Over the last decade, shade tree leaf functional traits and whole plant traits have been assessed in agroforestry systems. Yet, we lack amalgamated information on (i) what we know about shade tree trait relationships with functions to achieve desired agroecosystem outcomes, (ii) how decades of shade tree selection by farmers impacts agroforests inter‐ and intraspecific trait diversity, and (iii) which shade tree traits should be considered for achieving farmer priorities. We consolidate literature on Coffea arabica (coffee) and Theobroma cacao (cocoa) agroforestry systems to summarize the role of shade tree functional traits in three key ecosystem functions: soil fertility, microclimate modification and crop productivity. We compile global and regional datasets on tree functional trait diversity to show the functional space of agroforestry tree species compared with the overall functional space observed in plants. Despite, or maybe because of, high shade tree diversity, shade tree trait characterization remains coarse and commonly measured at the community scale in the literature. Based on published trait data, we show that farmers adjust the functional composition of shade trees to increase the recycling of soil nutrients (high leaf nitrogen), the production of wood (skewing towards lower wood densities) and the production of fruits (tendency towards high seed size). Common shade trees in coffee and cocoa systems fall in the mid‐range of leaf acquisitive to conservative strategies, providing evidence that expanding shade tree portfolios can improve, or even accelerate, functions. Synthesis and applications: Based on the agroforestry literature and on trait‐environment relationships, we propose a matrix of shade tree traits that influence desirable agroecosystem outcomes for farmers, which can guide fine‐scale coordination of trait expression and agroforestry functions.

Finding the research gap of the potential anti-inflammatory activity of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) through systematic literature review

The use of conventional drugs in treating inflammation has various side effects, and thus it is necessary to have an alternative anti-inflammatory agent that is effective and safe. Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is one of the agricultural products with a high content of polyphenols, especially flavan-3-ols potentially used as an anti-inflammatory agent. The purpose of this research is to investigate the research gap of the potential antiinflammatory activity of cocoa based on the published literatures. The systematic method of synthesizing the review follows the guidelines of the PRISMA Statement 2020 using the PICOS literature search strategy. The results of this study showed that the positive effect of cocoa on inflammation indicated by 44 out of 72 biomarkers (61.11%). Flavan-3- ols can effectively reduce inflammation by reducing the activation of transcripts that regulate pro-inflammatory cytokines (NF-kB), prostaglandins, and NO. The antiinflammatory effect was effectively found in different groups, i.e., subjects without health issue (healthy subject), subjects with some health problems record and subjects with obesity. Nevertheless, it was found in the previous researches that the manifest of cocoaderived products as well as the biomarkers for determining the anti-inflammatory effect of cocoa still vary. Also, there is no study investigating the anti-inflammatory effect of cocoa on different age group. Therefore, further researches are required in this area to complete the puzzle of information regarding the potential anti-inflammatory activity of cocoa.

Significant potential of tape yeast and plant leaves as a cover for fermented cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) beans to generate qualities of dry cocoa beans

The purpose of this study was to determine the response to the addition of tape yeast and various cover leaves in the fermentation process of quality cocoa beans (Theobroma cacao L.) according to the Indonesian National Standard (SNI). This research was conducted at PT Perkebunan Nusantara (PTPN) XII, Ngrangkah Pawon plantation, Kediri Regency and Laboratory of Agrotechnology, Universitas Darussalam Gontor in April-August 2020. The research design used a factorial completely randomized design (CRD). The first factor was the addition of tape yeast (R) which consisted of 5 levels, namely: no yeast (R0), the addition of 0.5% tape yeast (R1), 1.0% (R2), 1.5% (R3), and 2.0% (R4). The second factor was plant leaves (D) which consisted of 5 levels, namely: D1 (banana leaves), D2 (teak leaves), D3 (taro leaves), D4 (papaya leaves) and D5 (bamboo leaves). Observation parameters included fermentation temperature of cocoa beans, pulp acidity (pH) of cocoa beans, the account of cocoa beans per 100 g, moisture content, sugar content, cut test and, phytochemical qualitative test. Observation data were analyzed by using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and further tested with LSD 5%. The addition of tape yeast and plant leaves as a cover for fermented cocoa beans improved the quality of the dry cocoa beans. There was no interaction between the addition of tape yeast and plant leaves as a cover for fermented cocoa beans in all observations of the quality of dry cocoa beans. The addition of 1% tape yeast improved the quality of fermented cocoa beans on the parameters of fermentation temperature on day 2 (43.2℃), the account of cocoa beans per 100 g (93.8 cocoa beans), sugar content (2.8°Bx) and brown seed color (99.2%). Teak leaves, taro leaves, papaya leaves and bamboo leaves can be used as a cover for fermenting cocoa beans such as banana leaves which are commonly used by farmers.

Clovamide and Its Derivatives-Bioactive Components of Theobroma cacao and Other Plants in the Context of Human Health.

Clovamide (N-caffeoyl-L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, N-caffeoyldopamine, N-caffeoyl-L-DOPA) is a derivative of caffeic acid, belonging to phenolamides (hydroxycinnamic acid amides). Despite a growing interest in the biological activity of natural polyphenolic substances, studies on the properties of clovamide and related compounds, their significance as bioactive components of the diet, as well as their effects on human health are a relatively new research trend. On the other hand, in vitro and in vivo evidence indicates the considerable potential of these substances in the context of maintaining human health or using them as pharmacophores. The name "clovamide" directly derives from red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), being the first identified source of this compound. In the human diet, clovamides are mainly present in chocolate and other cocoa-containing products. Furthermore, their occurrence in some medicinal plants has also been confirmed. The literature reports deal with the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, antiplatelet/antithrombotic and anticancer properties of clovamide-type compounds. This narrative review summarizes the available data on the biological activity of clovamides and their potential health-supporting properties, including prospects for the use of these compounds for therapeutic purposes.

Effect of Maturity Stages on Physical Properties of Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) Pods

Cocoa is one of the main plantation crops in Malaysia. Significant efforts have been made to modernise the industry using mechanisation and automation technologies. Thus, determination of the physical properties of cocoa pods at different maturity stages is paramount for an appropriate design and development of a post-harvest machinery system for pod breaking, sorting and grading. This study investigated the effect of five different maturity stages (unripe, under-ripe, ripe, very-ripe and over-ripe) on the physical properties of cocoa pods. A total of 80 cocoa pods (Clone PBC140) were used as samples, where 16 pods represented each maturity stage. For the unripe stage, the largest mean dimensional values were 172.45, 89.3 and 111.18 mm for the pods’ length, diameter and geometric mean diameter, respectively. The highest mean values of 0.66 and 0.54 for the over-ripe stage were recorded for sphericity and aspect ratio, respectively. The geometric mean diameter, weight and firmness were found to be inversely proportional to the maturity stages. The advanced maturity stages experience greater colour intensity, as reflected in the chroma (C*) and higher L*, a* and b* values. This study has found that the colour and texture of the cocoa pods change throughout their maturity. In conclusion, the results reported in this study can be used as a reference for designing and developing a machinery system for post-harvest fruit processing.