Cacao Agroforests Research Articles

Differences in women’s and men’s conservation of cacao agroforests in coastal Ecuador

SummaryStakeholder preferences for the conservation of cacao agroforests are scarcely known. Here, a revealed preference model was used to estimate the value that smallholders place on the conservation of their cacao agroforests in coastal Ecuador. Variables in the model included plot-level data (the gender of those who owned and managed the plot, profit, land title and years of ownership) and household demographic data (ages, educational levels and wealth indicators). Households were willing to give up some profit to conserve agroforests especially if they had managed the plot longer. Furthermore, when women were included in the management of a plot, the household was more likely to conserve the cacao agroforest, but the gender of the person who owns the plot had no effect on the probability of conserving the agroforest. These findings provide further evidence of the gender differences in preferences for agroforests and that more inclusive land-use decisions may lead to the use of more sustainable farming practices. They also demonstrate that policies that encourage inclusive land ownership do not necessarily ensure equal gender participation in plot decision-making and management.

Organic phosphorus of soils under cacao agroforests in the Atlantic coast of Brazil

To increase the limited knowledge about phosphorus (P) species in strongly weathered soils of agroforests in tropical regions, the soil organic P was determined in different cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) agroforestry systems from the Atlantic forest region of Brazil, varying in age and phosphate fertilizer application. For this purpose NaOH-EDTA extraction and solution 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (31P NMR) were used. The studied areas were agroforests with different management systems: cacao-cabruca, cacao + erythrina, and cacao + rubber tree, which were compared with unfertilized pasture and natural forest. The results show that the distribution of P species in soil varied according to the different management practices (P fertilization, tree species and tree density) and stability time (different ages) of the cacao agroforests with low input of phosphate fertilizer. In cacao agroforests, natural forest and pasture a large portion of soil organic P (Po) consisted of P-monoester with lower concentrations of DNA. This Po species was correlated positively with clay and soil organic carbon. However, the recent conversion of natural forest and pasture to cacao agroforests led to a decrease in DNA concentration. High concentrations of pyrophosphate found in all cacao agroforests could be an evidence of a high soil fungal activity in cycling and accumulation of this P species. Moreover, the high concentrations and relative proportions of Po and pyrophosphate species revealed a high potential of P supply to trees in case of suppression of the phosphate fertilization in these agroforestry systems.

Human behaviors determine the direct and indirect impacts of free-ranging dogs on wildlife

Dogs (Canis familiaris) are among the most abundant and widely distributed carnivores worldwide, and their presence can have negative impacts on native fauna. This study investigated the invasion of cacao agroforests by free-ranging dogs in Brazil. By monitoring the behavior of dogs using direct observations, we assessed whether direct (chasing and predation) and indirect (urine and fecal deposition) interactions with wildlife are more common when dogs enter the agroforests with humans than when they stay outside. We also compared the time that dogs spent inside versus outside the agroforests, and estimated their areas of use. The dogs (n = 10) spent a small fraction of the time without their owners, and only when moving inside the cacao agroforests. The dogs fed and rested more in open habitats and house surroundings than in agroforests, but they were more active and depredated wildlife exclusively in the latter. Kernel estimates of space use at the 50% and 95% levels ranged from 1 to 46 ha and 6 to 202 ha, respectively. Most of the area used by dogs was within cacao agroforest, while core areas were concentrated near human residences and in places of owner permanence in cacao agroforest. Human movement was a key determining factor in the use of space by the dogs. Changes to human behaviors toward their dogs must be considered if the direct and indirect impacts of dogs on wildlife are to be mitigated.

Temporal and spatial resource use by female three-toed sloths and their young in an agricultural landscape in Costa Rica

The information on ecological behavior of wild sloths is very scarce. In this study we determined the home ranges and resources used by three adult female three-toed sloths (Bradypus variegatus) and their four young in an agricultural matrix of cacao (Theobroma cacao), pasture, riparian forests and living fencerows in Costa Rica. Births occurred during November-December and the young became independent at five to seven months of age. Initially, mothers remained fixed in one or a few trees, but expanded their use of resources as young sloths became independent from them. Mothers initially guided the young to preferred food and cover resources, but they gradually left their young in small nucleus areas and colonized new areas for themselves. Home range sizes for young sloths (up to seven months of age) varied between 0.04-0.6 hectares, while home range sizes for mothers varied from 0.04-25.0 hectares. During the maternal care period, 22 tree species were used, with the most common being Cecropia obtusifolia (30.9%), Coussapoa villosa (25.6%), Nectandra salicifolia (12.1%), Pterocarpus officinalis (5.8%) and Samanea saman (5.4%). However, young sloths used only 20 tree species, with the most common being C. villosa (18.4%), S. saman (18.5%) and N. salicifolia (16.7%). The cacao agroforest was used only by mother sloths and never by their young following separation. However, in the riparian forest, both mother sloths and young used the tree species. A total of 28 tree species were used by the mother sloth; including the food species: C. obtusifolia, C. villosa, N. salicifolia and P. officinalis. However, the young used 18 trees species in this habitat with N. salicifolia and S. saman most commonly used, although they rested and fed during the day in C. obtusifolia, C. villosa and O. sinnuata. The cacao agroforest with adjacent riparian forests and fencerows provides an important habitat type that links the smaller secondary forests and other patches.

First typology of cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) systems in Colombian Amazonia, based on tree species richness, canopy structure and light availability.

Aim and backgroundWe present a typology of cacao agroforest systems in Colombian Amazonia. These systems had yet to be described in the literature, especially their potential in terms of biodiversity conservation. The systems studied are located in a post-conflict area, and a deforestation front in Colombian Amazonia. Cacao cropping systems are of key importance in Colombia: cacao plays a prime role in post conflict resolution, as cacao is a legal crop to replace illegal crops; cacao agroforests are expected to be a sustainable practice, promoting forest-friendly land use.Material and methodsWe worked in 50 x 2000 m2 agroforest plots, in Colombian Amazonia. A cluster analysis was used to build a typology based on 28 variables characterised in each plot, and related to diversity, composition, spatial structure and light availability for the cacao trees. We included variables related to light availability to evaluate the amount of transmitted radiation to the cacao trees in each type, and its suitability for cacao ecophysiological development.Main resultsWe identified 4 types of cacao agroforests based on differences concerning tree species diversity and the impact of canopy spatial structure on light availability for the cacao trees in the understorey. We found 127 tree species in the dataset, with some exclusive species in each type. We also found that 3 out of the 4 types identified displayed an erosion of tree species diversity. This reduction in shade tree species may have been linked to the desire to reduce shade, but we also found that all the types described were compatible with good ecophysiological development of the cacao trees.Main conclusions and prospectsCacao agroforest systems may actually be achieving biodiversity conservation goals in Colombian Amazonia. One challenging prospect will be to monitor and encourage the conservation of tree species diversity in cacao agroforest systems during the development of these cropping systems, as a form of forest-friendly management enhancing sustainable peace building in Colombia.

Effects of shade tree cover and diversity on root system structure and dynamics in cacao agroforests: The role of root competition and space partitioning

To increase yield, cacao is planted increasingly in unshaded monocultures, replacing a more traditional cultivation under shade. We investigated how shade tree cover and species diversity affect the root system and its dynamics. In a replicated study in Sulawesi (Indonesia), we studied the fine and coarse root system down to 3 m soil depth in three modern and more traditional cacao cultivation systems: unshaded cacao monoculture (Cacao-mono), cacao under either the legume Gliricidia sepium (Cacao-Gliricidia), or a diverse (> 6 species) shade tree cover (Cacao-multi). We analysed the vertical distribution of fine, large and coarse roots as well as fine root production, turnover and morphology on the species level. Stand-level fine root biomass showed a doubling with increasing shade tree cover (from 206 to 432 g m−2), but a tendency for a decrease in cacao fine root biomass. The presence of Gliricidia roots seemed to shift the cacao fine roots to a more shallow distribution, while the presence of shade tree roots in the Cacao-multi systems caused a biomass reduction and relative downward shift of the cacao roots. The turnover of cacao fine roots was much higher in the Cacao-multi stands than in the other two cultivation systems, although stand-level root production remained unchanged across the three systems. According to the stable isotope signature, Gliricidia extracted water from deeper soil layers than cacao, while no soil water partitioning was observed in the Cacao-multi stands. Our data suggest that the cacao trees altered their fine root distribution patterns in response to root competition. Both interspecific competition and root system segregation seem to play an important role in cacao agroforests with different shade tree cover.

Litter and soil-related variation in functional group abundances in cacao agroforests using structural equation modeling

The aim of this study was to apply the method of structural equation modeling using latent variables (constructs) with multi-indicators to test hypothesized interaction models among functional groups of fauna and attributes of litter-soil system in cacao agroforests in the south of Bahia, Brazil. The hypothesized structural model was composed of four constructs: the litter-attributes, litter-fauna, soil-attributes, and soil-fauna. The models tested were able to distinguish between the direct and indirect relationships of the faunal groups and attributes of litter-soil system. The results have shown that the interconnection theory between fauna and attributes of litter-soil system should be presented in more than one structural equation model. The models built from the re-specifications showed a strong theoretical base and data fitted, well representing the fauna as a latent variable (construct) theory within the litter-soil system of cacao agroforests. The overall fit of the hypothesized models highlighted the theoretical plausibility of complex interconnection between soil and litter fauna. Both are influenced by the attributes of their niches. Litter-attributes construct composed only by the indicators lignin, cellulose and polyphenols showed a recalcitrant predominant nature. This low litter nutritional quality would negatively affect the faunal groups therein. The negative relation between litter-attributes and soil-attributes suggest that low-quality litter contributed little to the improvement of soil fertility, particularly related to the level of acidity. The negative relationship between soil-attributes and soil-fauna shows that highly acid and low-fertility soils would promote some restriction on the activity of soil fauna groups. The structural equation modeling with latent variables proved to be a suitable tool for the understanding of the complexity of the relationships between faunal groups within the tested litter-soil system, indicating how the changes in a latent composition would affect other latents. It important to mention that when the approach is about organisms in the litter-soil system, caution is advised when trying, in a mechanistic way, to determine the factors influencing the interconnection of these organisms with their niches, due to the inherent heterogeneity of both litter and soil.

Tree spacing impacts the individual incidence of Moniliophthora roreri disease in cacao agroforests.

Using conventional pesticides in crop protection has raised serious environmental concerns and there is therefore a need for integrated pest management (IPM) methods. In this paper, we found that the spacing of trees can impact disease, which could result in a reduction in pesticide applications and may act as a potential IPM method. We studied Frosty Pod Rot (FPR) in 20 cacao agroforests in Costa Rica (Upala region). Using a generalized linear mixed model, we analyzed the impact of the neighborhood composition and distance from a studied cacao individual on its individual FPR incidence. We found that the number of cacao tree neighbors in a radius of 3.7 m and the number of fruit trees in a radius of 4.3 m had a significant negative influence on the incidence of FPR on individual cacao trees. Moreover, cacao tree neighbors had the most significant local influence compared to the neighborhood of other taller categories such as fruit or forest trees. The mechanisms involved are related to the barrier effect, due to the effectiveness of the cacao tree's architecture as an efficient barrier against FPR spore dispersal. This paper provides new insights into optimization of the spatial environment around each host as an original IPM method. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Dog invasion in agroforests: The importance of households, roads and dog population size in the surroundings

Dogs are considered an invasive species, whose presence in natural habitats adversely affects wildlife. We investigate the effects of household and road proximity, and of dog population size in the surroundings on the invasion of cacao agroforest by dogs, and evaluate if dogs raised in the vicinity are more likely to invade agroforests than dogs of unknown origin. The study was conducted in a landscape dominated by agroforests, within the cacao growing region of Southern Bahia, Brazil. Dogs were recorded by camera-traps in 15 agroforest sites, and we identified dogs inhabiting the vicinity of each sampled agroforest site by visiting all households up to 800m from sampling sites. We obtained 115 photographic records of 47 individuals, and identified 213 dogs inhabiting the site surroundings. The number of individuals and frequency of visit of dogs tend to be higher in agroforests located nearer a household, but were not associated with the distance to the nearest road or the dog population size in the surroundings. The frequency of visits in agroforests did not differ between dogs residing in the surroundings and dogs of unknown origin. Our results indicate that the surroundings are not the main source of dogs invading agroforests, most likely because dogs perform long-distance movements in association to humans. Strategies to reduce the impacts of dogs on wildlife will gain from studies on movement ecology and should include practices to restrict dogs’ home range.

Contribution of associated trees to long-term species conservation, carbon storage and sustainability: a functional analysis of tree communities in cacao plantations of Central Cameroon

ABSTRACTIn Central Africa, most cacao is still cultivated in low-input agroforests where cacao associated trees are traditionally valued by farmers. These systems are sustainable on the long run, support biodiversity conservation and carbon storage. Yet, little knowledge exists on the contribution of tree community management to explain such results. In Central Cameroon, we investigated cacao agroforest associated tree community contributions to the long-term (i) maintenance of tree species encountering a conservation issue and (ii) carbon storage. We further simulated the simplification of these systems by checking for the effect of tree density decrease on community functional groups or traits. Finally, we linked farmers’ use of associated trees to their functional features and conservation status. Cacao agroforestry systems were able to combine high levels of species richness with long-term conservation abilities and carbon storage. Simplification emphasized consistent shifts of functional traits/groups that will change the way they function and alter the existing balances between different associated tree uses. Since traditional agroforests are now foreseen as providers of timber/non-timber forest products, our study argues that this paradigm change in such low-input systems - if carried improperly - is likely to impair the provision of the services they currently provide as well as their sustainability.

Report on the presence of a group of golden-headed lion tamarins (Leontopithecus chrysomelas), an endangered primate species in a rubber plantation in southern Bahia, Brazil.

In a landscape fragmented by agriculture, the extent to which forest-dwelling primates can use the matrix between fragments can be critical for their long-term survival. So far, the golden-headed lion tamarin (Leontopithecus chrysomelas), an endangered primate inhabiting the Atlantic Forest of south Bahia, is only known to use shaded cacao (Theobroma cacao) agroforests within the matrix. We report on the use of a rubber plantation by a group of golden-headed lion tamarins between August 2013 and January 2014. The group used the rubber plantation on 16 of the 22 observation days (73 %), and we recorded behaviours such as eating, grooming and sleeping, consistent with the use of the area as a home range. We also observed associations with Wied's marmosets (Callithrix kuhlii). The locations of group sightings were not uniformly spread across the entire area of the rubber plantation, suggesting preferred use of certain areas. The presence of resources such as jackfruits (Artocarpus heterophyllus) and epiphytic bromeliads may be attracting both species to these plantations. In addition to shaded cacao plantations, rubber plantations with the appropriate structure may be a viable option for increasing forest connectivity for both species in south Bahia, reconciling economic rubber production with primate conservation.

Bat and bird exclusion but not shade cover influence arthropod abundance and cocoa leaf consumption in agroforestry landscape in northeast Brazil

Bats and birds play important roles as arthropod predators in top-down control. Both groups are represented by a large number of species in agroforests, but are likely to respond negatively to management intensification. This study investigates the potential role of bats and birds on arthropod pest control in shaded cacao plantations through a field experiment. We tested if bat and/or bird exclusion from cacao trees leads to higher arthropod abundance and leaf damage, and conducted the experiment in high and low shade plantations. Our results suggest a complex food web, with at least four trophic levels, connecting top predators to primary producers in cacao agroforests. Bird exclusion increased leaf damage while bat exclusion increased total arthropod and plant-sucking insect relative abundance. Simultaneous bird and bat exclusion increased spider relative abundance, triggering a mesopredator release, which negatively affected herbivore activity and reduced leaf damage. Shade level did not significantly influence observed top-down effects. This finding, coupled with previous knowledge on bat and bird diversity in agroforestry landscapes in southern Bahia, suggests that landscape-scale effects may be more relevant than local shade management for maintaining diverse bird and bat assemblages. Agroforestry systems harbour natural biological control functions played by bats and birds. Because these are highly mobile organisms, large-scale implementation of wildlife-friendly landscapes is likely to be more important for this than local shade management within agroforests.

Contrasting effects of habitat management on different feeding guilds of herbivorous insects in cacao agroforestry systems

Human pressure on natural habitats increases the importance of agroforests for biodiversity conservation. The objective of this study was to evaluate the role of cacao traditional cultivation system (CTCS) on the conservation of the herbivorous insect community when compared with a monodominant rubber agroforest, a type of agricultural system for cacao cultivation. The insects were sampled in three habitats in Southeastern Bahia, Brazil: native forests, CTCS and rubber agroforests. In each habitat, 18 plots of 10 m2 were established, and the structural measures were collected and herbivorous insects were sampled with a Malaise/window trap. The diversity of folivorous decreased with the simplification of vegetation structure, but species composition was similar among habitats. In addition to a decrease in the availability of resources in monodominant rubber agroforests, the latex present in these systems have limited the occurrence of species that cannot circumvent latex toxicity. The diversity of sap-sucking insects was similar among habitats, but species composition was similar only in the CTCS and native forest, and it was different in the rubber agroforest. We observed turnover and a higher frequency of individuals of the family Psyllidae in the rubber agroforest. The biology and behavior of Psyllids and absence of natural enemies enable their diversity to increase when they are adapted to a new host. We observed a shift in the composition of xylophagous insects in the rubber agroforest compared to that in other habitats. Moreover, this agroforest has low species richness, but high individual abundance. Latex extraction is likely an important additional source of volatile compounds discharged into the environment, and it increases the attraction and recruitment of coleoborers to these sites. We concluded that CTCS has an herbivorous insect community with a structure similar to the community found in native forests of the region, and they present a more interesting conservation strategy when compared to rubber agroforests. We also emphasized the potential risk of local pest outbreaks in rubber agroforests for both the rubber and associated cacao trees.

P transformations in cacao agroforests soils in the Atlantic forest region of Bahia, Brazil

Little is known about the phosphorus (P) fractions and P lability of agroforest soils in tropical regions, particularly those of cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) agroforests. We hypothesized that the effect of P fertilization on the distribution of P fractions in the soil based on the source-sink relationship differs for different cacao agroforestry systems. The cacao agroforestry systems studied were the following: open cacao-cabruca, closed cacao-cabruca, cacao + erythrina, mixed cacao + rubber tree, and cacao + rubber tree intercropping. A natural forest and an unfertilized pasture were used as reference systems. The P fractions were determined using the Hedley sequential extraction method, and the P transformation processes were evaluated via structural equation modeling. The impact of low P fertilizer input on the P fractions varied according to the specific environmental conditions of each cacao production system. Consequently, there was high dissimilarity among all of the cacao sites. In all of the cacao agroforestry systems, there was an increase in inorganic P (Pi), especially the labile fraction (resin-Pi and NaHCO3-Pi), but organic P (Po) increased only in the cacao + erythrina system and in the rubber tree planting row of the cacao + rubber tree intercropping system. As a result, the fitted structural models indicated that the inter-relationships of the geochemical processes were more important for determining the P availability than the biological processes. However, the Po concentrations and relative proportion were high in all of the cacao agroforestry systems, thereby revealing the high potential of supplying P to plants via the mineralization process in the eventual removal of mineral fertilization.

Predatory beetles in cacao agroforestry systems in Brazilian Atlantic forest: a test of the natural enemy hypothesis

The natural enemy hypothesis predicts a positive correlation between plant species diversity and natural enemy control. This study aimed to evaluate the role of traditional cacao agroforests, known as “cabrucas,” on the conservation of the predatory beetle community compared to that of monodominant rubber agroforests. Predatory beetles were sampled in three habitats in Southeastern Bahia, Brazil: cabrucas and rubber agroforests and native Atlantic forests. In each habitat, 18 10 m2 plots were established, in which canopy cover was measured and beetles were sampled with a modified Malaise/window trap. Land use intensification did not affect the composition of predatory beetles, with the presence of widely distributed species that are also capable of colonizing simpler environments such as the rubber agroforest. Canopy cover had a positive effect on generalist predator diversity and we observed a reduction in the abundance and species richness of generalist predators with increasing habitat homogenization. Despite the simplified structure of the habitat, the remaining tree diversity and canopy cover in cabrucas supported a community of generalist predators similar to the one found in the native forest. Species diversity of bark beetle predators was higher in cabrucas, which may be due to the high diversity of bark beetles and the favorable abiotic conditions, whereas the low abundance of prey in the native forest and severe abiotic conditions in the rubber agroforest probably determined the lower diversity of generalist predators in these habitats. Cabrucas play an important role in the conservation, supporting a community of predatory beetles more similar to the one found in native forest and that is more effective at controlling populations of herbivores than in homogeneous rubber agroforests.

Do Habitat Use and Interspecific Association Reflect Predation Risk for the Golden-Headed Lion Tamarin (Leontopithecus chrysomelas)?

Predation risk may affect the way species use their habitat. Interspecific associations can help to improve predator detection and avoidance. The golden-headed lion tamarin (Leontopithecus chrysomelas) is an endangered primate of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest whose geographical range is dominated by shaded cacao agroforest (cabruca), where predation risk is high and mainly due to raptors. We investigated whether predation risk affects vertical stratum use and time spent traveling by tamarins, and the role of interspecific association with Wied’s marmosets (Callithrix kuhlii) in shaping these activities. We compared the behavior of three tamarin groups in cabruca (March 2010–June 2011) with that of three groups in mosaic forests (January 2007–December 2008), where predation risk is lower. We predicted that tamarins would use the higher strata level less in cabruca than in mosaic forests, and would use it less after encounters with predators than before such encounters. We also predicted increased use of the higher level and increased travel during interspecific associations than when tamarins were alone. We found that tamarins avoided the higher level regardless of habitat, but used it more often in cabruca than in mosaic forest, and did not avoid it after encounters with predators. Interspecific associations did not influence tamarins’ activities, except for the smallest group of tamarins in mosaic forest, which decreased its use of the lower level when in an interspecific association. Our results suggest that the benefits of interspecies association are not related to the activities investigated here, and that predation risk can influence habitat use but vegetation structure may constrain its optimal use by primates, increasing their vulnerability to predation.

Is there a choice? Choice experiment to determine the value men and women place on cacao agroforests in coastal Ecuador

Is there a choice? Choice experiment to determine the value men and women place on cacao agroforests in coastal Ecuador

Is there a choice? Choice experiment to determine the value men and women place on cacao agroforests in coastal Ecuador

Is there a choice? Choice experiment to determine the value men and women place on cacao agroforests in coastal Ecuador

Diversity and pathogenicity of the Ceratocystidaceae associated with cacao agroforests in Cameroon

Knowledge of the diversity and ecology of plant pathogenic fungi in cacao agroforests and surrounding natural ecosystems can inform the development of sustainable management strategies for new cacao disease outbreaks. This study investigated the occurrence of fungi related to the Ceratocystidaceae and their nitidulid beetle vectors in cacao agroforests in Cameroon, under diverse agroecological conditions. The fungi and their vectors were collected from artificially induced stem wounds on cacao and associated shade trees. Collections were also made from abandoned cacao pod husks and other tree wounds within and around plantations. Fungal isolates were identified using DNA sequence‐based phylogenies and morphological comparisons, and two representatives of each species were evaluated for pathogenicity on cacao. Five species of Ceratocystidaceae were recovered, including Huntiella chlamydoformis sp. nov., H. pycnanthi sp. nov. and H. moniliformis, as well as Thielaviopsis cerberus and T. ethacetica. The incidence of these fungi appeared to be influenced by the prevailing agroecological conditions. Nitidulid beetles in the genus Brachypeplus were found to be their most common insect associates on cacao. Both T. ethacetica and H. pycnanthi produced extensive lesions after inoculation on branches of mature cacao trees, while T. ethacetica also caused pod rot. Although their impact remains unknown, fungi in the Ceratocystidaceae and their nitidulid beetle vectors are common and probably contribute to the parasitic pressure in Cameroonian cacao agrosystems.

Tree spatial structure, host composition and resource availability influence mirid density or black pod prevalence in cacao agroforests in Cameroon.

Combining crop plants with other plant species in agro-ecosystems is one way to enhance ecological pest and disease regulation mechanisms. Resource availability and microclimatic variation mechanisms affect processes related to pest and pathogen life cycles. These mechanisms are supported both by empirical research and by epidemiological models, yet their relative importance in a real complex agro-ecosystem is still not known. Our aim was thus to assess the independent effects and the relative importance of different variables related to resource availability and microclimatic variation that explain pest and disease occurrence at the plot scale in real complex agro-ecosystems. The study was conducted in cacao (Theobroma cacao) agroforests in Cameroon, where cocoa production is mainly impacted by the mirid bug, Sahlbergella singularis, and black pod disease, caused by Phytophthora megakarya. Vegetation composition and spatial structure, resource availability and pest and disease occurrence were characterized in 20 real agroforest plots. Hierarchical partitioning was used to identify the causal variables that explain mirid density and black pod prevalence. The results of this study show that cacao agroforests can be differentiated on the basis of vegetation composition and spatial structure. This original approach revealed that mirid density decreased when a minimum number of randomly distributed forest trees were present compared with the aggregated distribution of forest trees, or when forest tree density was low. Moreover, a decrease in mirid density was also related to decreased availability of sensitive tissue, independently of the effect of forest tree structure. Contrary to expectations, black pod prevalence decreased with increasing cacao tree abundance. By revealing the effects of vegetation composition and spatial structure on mirids and black pod, this study opens new perspectives for the joint agro-ecological management of cacao pests and diseases at the plot scale, through the optimization of the spatial structure and composition of the vegetation.