Byzantine Research Articles

Mortars in the Archaeological Site of Hierapolis of Phrygia (Denizli, Turkey) from Imperial to Byzantine Age

Hierapolis of Phrygia, an archaeological site in southwestern Turkey, has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1988. During archaeological campaigns, 71 mortar samples from public buildings were collected, dating from the Julio-Claudian to the Middle Byzantine period. The samples were analyzed using a multi-analytical approach including polarized optical microscopy (POM), digital image analysis (DIA), X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) and SEM–EDS to trace the raw materials and understand the evolution of mortar composition and technology over time. During the Roman period, travertine and marble were commonly used in binder production, while marble dominated in the Byzantine period. The aggregates come mainly from sands of the Lycian Nappe and Menderes Massif, with carbonate and silicate rock fragments. Variations in composition, average size and circularity suggest changes in raw material sources in both Roman and Byzantine periods. Cocciopesto mortar was used in water-related structures from the Flavian to the Severan period, but, in the Byzantine period, it also appeared in non-hydraulic contexts. Straw became a common organic additive in Byzantine renders, marking a shift from the exclusively inorganic aggregates of Roman renders. This study illustrates the evolving construction technologies and material sources used throughout the city’s history.

The Impact of Foreign Control on The Economic Factor in Southern Arabia Before Islam

Yemen's geographical location, which connects East to West, helped the recovery of its economy. Agriculture was one of the most important factors that characterized the economy of southern Arabia before Islam, as a result of its fertile soil and the availability of water in it, including rainwater, dams and valleys. The agricultural crops varied with Tayeb and incense were the top of Yemeni goods, so they called it the “land of Tayoub”. Yemen was also called “Green Yemen” because of its abundance of goods. The commercial factor also played an important role in raising the Yemeni economy as it served as a link between the countries of the old world. Various trade routes branched out, including land roads, as the incense road is one of the most famous roads that gained wide fame before Islam, as well as sea routes for the transport of commercial caravans. The industrial sector was equally important, with Yemeni workers excelling in diverse industries, the availability of raw materials in the country led to flourishing industries. All these factors contributed to the development of the economy, making it vulnerable to foreign ambitions. Several foreign powers, including the Romans, sought to acquire its wealth. Later, other external powers such as the Al-Ahbash, supported by the Byzantine Empire, and the Sassanid Empire extended their influence over Yemen's riches, ultimately affecting and leading to the demise of the Yemeni civilization. Economic factors were the main drivers of foreign control over southern Arabia.

Exporting Silk from Byzantine Greece: Reconstructing the Trade Logistics of the Theban Silk Industry

ABSTRACT The silk industry that thrived in Thebes around the twelfth century exemplified Byzantium’s industrial accomplishments during the middle Byzantine period. However, how its silk products were exported still awaits systematic clarification. This topic becomes increasingly compelling as scholars begin to reveal the industry’s potential interactions with other regional economic sectors, especially pottery production in Euripos, in terms of trade logistics. This article aims to contribute a thorough investigation into the trade logistics of the Theban silk industry. It argues that Theban silk could have been distributed to its market destinations entirely overland or by integrating with maritime transport at nearby entrepôts. Initially, Corinth, with its two ports oriented towards trade hubs in the east and west, served as the paramount entrepôt. As Corinth’s maritime trade, especially its eastern port, declined in the later twelfth century, Euripos emerged to bridge the gap and assumed its former trade roles.

What jewelry did people wear in the Middle Byzantine period (10th-12th C. CE) in the Peloponnese? A technological and analytical case study

The present paper presents the preliminary results of the archaeometric analysis of a Middle Byzantine jewelry assemblage made of non-precious metals from the ancient site of Pallantion, near Tripoli (Peloponnese, Greece). The assemblage under examination consists of 26 artifacts, including earrings, finger rings and buckles. Macroscopic observations and optical microscopy were used to examine the manufacturing technology of the artifacts, with a particular focus on the manufacturing technology of wires. The proposed methodology combined a Handheld X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (HH-XRF) and a Micro X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (μ-XRF) to group the alloys used in the manufacture of the jewelry, despite the presence of corrosion. This methodology indicated that the majority of the artifacts was made of bronze, leaded or not, and gunmetal. Moreover, a quantification criterion was used to determine the state of preservation of the surface of the jewelry. Overall, the present study highlights the manufacturing technology of jewelry of the Middle Byzantine period and the tendency to imitate silver jewelry with lower-cost materials.

Challenging the Significance of the LALIA and the Justinianic Plague: A Reanalysis of the Archaeological Record

Summary The Late Antique Little Ice Age (LALIA), and the Justinianic Plague, were recently suggested as the possible culprits for settlement contraction and population decline that supposedly occurred in the 6th c. CE. According to some who support this claim, these changes contributed to the weakening of this empire, which eventually led to the loss of vast territories and its defeat by the Persians and Arabs in the first half of the 7th c. CE. The assumptions that climate and plague had devastating impacts in the 6th c. CE are largely based on selected textual evidence, and archaeological evidence outside of the boundaries of the Eastern Roman Empire. As the current article will show, it seems that these assumptions are inherently incorrect as vast amounts of evidence, including archaeological survey data, settlement patterns, shipwreck analyses, pottery distribution in the Mediterranean and other material, indicate that there was no decline in the 6th c. CE. On the contrary, it is possible that there was a peak in population size in the second half of the 6th c. CE, suggesting that the LALIA and the Justinianic plague were limited in their impact.

EXCAVATIONS IN THE ANCIENT THEATRE OF SPARTA, 2008

This article presents the results of the 2008 excavation in the ancient theatre of Sparta conducted by the British School at Athens and the Ephorate of Antiquities of Laconia. Focused on the west side of the cavea, work aimed to locate the southern edge of the Late Antique settlement between the theatre and the sanctuary of Athena Chalkioikos; to establish the northern limits of the Late Antique settlement over the former orchestra; and to establish a more precise ceramic characterisation and chronology for the Early–Middle Byzantine period in Sparta. The area between settlement clusters on the acropolis and over the former orchestra was essentially open, with just a Byzantine terrace wall and path recorded. In the north-west part of the former cavea, a tomb built in the late eighth or early ninth century AD was used at least until the late thirteenth century for the burial of c. 29 individuals. This article presents the first results of a bioarchaeological study of the human remains, and studies of Byzantine pottery from the tomb interior and from the backfill of the pit in which the tomb was built (the latter including a notable quantity of Early Byzantine domestic ware). The 2008 findings are set in the larger context of research on post-antique phases in the theatre (drawing on the British School at Athens Archive) and on the material culture and urban topography of Byzantine Sparta. Almost all excavated contexts contained residual material of all periods. The article concludes with short catalogues of material which pre-dates the construction of the theatre and of inscriptions of all periods.

Florence, Byzantium and the Florentine Colony in Constantinople: An Impossible Love?

ABSTRACT This study examines the diplomatic and political efforts made by Florence to establish a significant institutional presence in Constantinople. It explores Florence's diplomatic relations with the Byzantine Empire, which are analysed in three distinct phases: the first, from the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade in 1204; the second, from 1421 to 1434, following the arrival of the Medici; and the third, from 1434, including the Ecumenical Council, to the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The research aims to provide an historical narrative and a comprehensive study of the origins and development of political contacts between Florence and the Byzantine Empire, an enquiry into the Florentine privileges granted in 1439, and a critical discussion of the genuine presence of a Florentine colony in the Byzantine capital.

Levantine wines in Italy between the Early Empire and Late Antiquity

The aim of this paper is to investigate the patterns of importations of Levantine wines to Italy between the Early Empire and Late Antiquity. It concentrates on quantities of Levantine amphoras discovered in terrestrial contexts in Rome, Ostia, Campania and the North Adriatic part of Italy. This data is compared with published discoveries from other parts of Italy and the Roman Mediterranean, including finds from shipwrecks. Regression analyses is used in order to compare distribution patterns of Levantine amphoras in the Mediterranean (Rome, North Adriatic Italy, Spain, Gaul, Ephesus and Cyprus) during the Principate and Late Antiquity. The results of this study show that Levantine wines, and in particular Gazan varieties, became much more popular in the Later Roman and Early Byzantine periods than they had been during the first centuries of the Empire. Several explanations of this phenomenon are considered, including climate change and technological development in the Levant, as well as a structural transformation of the Roman economy.

Հայոց եկեղեցու փոխհարաբերությունները Բյուզանդիայի և Մերձավոր Արեւելքի եկեղեցական կենտրոնների հետ

In his time John (Hovhannes) of Odzun (d. 728) proclaimmed that the hierarchical structure, theological conceptions and the rite of the Armenian Church were inherited from the time of the apostles. Along with the restoration of the public institutions in the Bagratid period (880s-1045), the Armenian authorities granted vast privileges to the Church, which turned into the most influential leverage for maintaining the inner and foreign policy of the state. In order to shatter the Bagratid Kingdom, the Byzantine Empire resorted to inciting conflicts between the Chalcedonian and anti-Chalcedonian Churches. Trying to subjugate Armenians and their territories at any cost, the Byzantine emperors weakened the religious structure of the Armenian Church. With the Seljuq raids of the 11th century we see that policy of Byzantium led to the Byzantine secession of the Minor Asian provinces where the Iconian Sultanate (or Sultanate of Rum, 1077-1308) and the Danishmandid State (1104-1178) were created by the Seljuq Turks. This continued with the gradual loss of the entire Minor Asian holdings of the Byzantine Empire and the emergence of the Ottoman Empire over the Byzantine territory. Finally the capital Constantinople was taken in 1453. The history of Armenian-Byzantine church relations shows that the mentioned churches had multifaceted religious and cultural relations. Over the centuries, they have made attempts to settle religious differences. In the process, each of them created a unique culture and civil system, the study of which allows us to understand their role in the modern world. To understand the characteristics of these cultures, detailed studies of ecclesiastical and literary monuments are assumed.

Thalassokratie, ein Leitprinzip byzantinischer Machtpolitik (6.–11. Jahrhundert)

Abstract For centuries the Byzantine empire was confronted not only with terrestrial attacks, but had to defend its territories also against enemies advancing from the sea. A central fleet with the dromon as standard type was created, based at Constantinople with its strong defences and excellent harbours, supported later by smaller provincial units. The present study depicts the development during the half millenium, when Byzantium ruled the seas (thalassocracy) and/or tried to defend its supremacy, especially against the Arabs. Due to the lack of further hostile challenge the whole system crumbled during the eleventh century and the imperial navy later on never regained its maritime strength. Especially Venice, a former outpost of Byzantium, filled the gap, successfully combining economic interests with naval strength.

Greek Poetry in a Multicultural Society: Sicily and Salento in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries

Abstract In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, southern Italy experienced a period of relative political stability and economic prosperity under the Normans as well as the Hohenstaufen dynasty that succeeded them. These cultural conditions fostered a cultural resurgence, which included the composition of Greek poetry. Poets in Sicily wrote from within a multicultural context, including the presence of Arabic- and Latin-speaking communities. Many of their poems illustrate the generative intersections between the Byzantine-Constantinopolitan, Latin, and Arabic traditions. Later in Salento, poetry was written in a rather closed Greek-speaking, Orthodox society. Comparing Greek poetry from Sicily and Salento shows some differences between composition in the two regions. Whereas Sicilian poetry includes especially creative narrative poems, composed for the rich and sophisticated courts of the island, the Salentine poetry bears the stamp of the schoolroom. In fact, most poems from both Sicily and Salento survive in manuscripts that can be traced to a pedagogical environment. While the circulation of these poems was limited to their surrounding regions, their literary sophistication betrays remarkable creativity and the multicultural conditions of composition, further evidence of the vitality of Greek literary culture far from the heartland of the Byzantine Empire.

All roads lead to (New) Rome: Byzantine astronomy and geography in a rapidly changing world

During the first few centuries CE, the centre of the known world gradually shifted from Alexandria to Constantinople. Combined with a societal shift from pagan beliefs to Christian doctrines, Antiquity gave way to the Byzantine era. While Western Europe entered an extended period of intellectual decline, Constantinople developed into a rich cultural crossroads between East and West. Yet, Byzantine scholarship in astronomy and geography continued to rely heavily on their ancient Greek heritage, and particularly on Ptolemy’s Geography. Unfortunately, Ptolemy’s choices for his geographic coordinate system resulted in inherent and significant distortions of and inaccuracies in maps centred on the Byzantine Empire. This comprehensive review of Byzantine geographic achievements—supported by a review of astronomical developments pertaining to position determination on Earth—aims to demonstrate why and how, when Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453 and the Ottoman Empire commenced, Byzantine astronomers had become the central axis in an extensive network of Christians, Muslims and Jews. Their influence remained significant well into the Ottoman era, particularly in the context of geographical applications.

The Conquest of Italy by the Ostrogoths in 488–493 ad as a Formal Restoration of the Power of the Eastern Roman Empire

The topic of Theodoric's campaign and its connection to the interests of Constantinople remains relevant and vital. Studying this topic helps provide a better understanding of geopolitical processes, the influence of the Eastern Roman Empire on the West, the political and legal aspects of the interaction between different regions of the empire, and the influence of "barbarian" peoples on the formation of medieval Europe. The focus is on studying the political, legal and geopolitical aspects of this transition period from antiquity to the Middle Ages. The paper academic deals with the legal characterisation of the Ostrogothic conquest of Italy at the end of the V century. The primary sources and different historiographical schools are analysed; the specifics of political and legal relations between the Roman Empire and the federate kings (commanders) are investigated. The personality of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Amal, who in 483 received the status of magister militum (commander-in-chief) and consul of the Roman Empire, is at the centre of attention

Representations of Music and the Dance in Late Roman Art

Music and the dance are an important theme represented in various artistic media of the Late Roman and Early Byzantine periods, including mosaic pavements and decorative arts such as silver metalwork, woven textiles, and carved ivories. A popular aspect of this theme is imagery of the Dionysiac thiasos, with members of the wine god’s entourage making merry by dancing and sounding crotala or cymbal tongs, as we see in a fragmentary mosaic from the House of the Dionysiac Thiasos at Augusta Traiana – Beroe. A similar effect occurs in either an expanded or a somewhat reduced format in pavements from Argos and Madaba. Besides mosaics, this subject also appears on Late Antique silver plate made for display, such as objects in the Mildenhall Treasure from Roman Britain and related works. Coptic textiles used to ornament private houses as colorful wall hangings feature lively dancers and musicians, and these figures may or may not have a mythological identity. Other non-mythological representations of music and the dance appeared in domestic and public settings. An outstanding example is the well-preserved Mosaic of Female Musicians that decorated a house in Mariamin, Syria, and that assembles an impressive group of instrumentalists and a dancer. One observes a pipe organ (hydraulis) along with a cithara, an aulos, and an acetabulum, consisting of a series of metal bowls struck with a baton. Elsewhere there are depicted a pantomime performance with an organ accompaniment, visible in a mosaic from Noheda, Spain, as well as music-making and dancing in the context of the circus. The latter subject appears on a consular diptych, and on the base of the Obelisk of Theodosius in Constantinople. We finally note that the pipe organ was later adopted for use in the church liturgy, reflected in an illustration in the Utrecht Psalter of 9th-century date. If the latter work of art is a copy of a Late Antique manuscript, as some scholars believe, then the pipe organ’s adoption for Christian ceremonial practice should be dated earlier than originally thought.

THEORY OF CONFLICTS-MICROTHEORIES

Every social system has had its conflicts. We have had conflicts over the division of empires based on religious or cultural orientation, for example the Byzantine Empire of the people have split into two denominations, the ruling system shutdown (system of Westphalia) or state of order of Westphalia. From this period, the world begins to be accompanied by state colonization. Conflicts can be regional, global, state, interstate and beyond. The crisis of Europe is more interesting than the other crisis that has entire realistic reforms after the Otto-monopoly bourgeois liberalization. East crisis was external and internal crisis, duplication of the aristocracy of the Ottoman Empire. We have a crisis or conflict of the First World War. The First World War created the system of Versailles. The Versailles system consists of the following problems: 1. The Ottoman Empire dissolved; 2. Formation of new states The cause of the First World War was Germany. - Then there is the crisis of the League of Nations (state problem solving) - Conflict of WWII; (World War II) There are three types of crises: 1. Fascism; 2. Bolshevism; and 3. Liberal Democracy. We are forming allies, and then we had the Cold War conflict. Cold War East-West conflict (ideological, military and economic change). The world is a crisis of the international order. The Russian Federation 20 years recycles apparent internal and external conflicts. Developed countries use the resources of underdeveloped countries. -World of today faces social crisis, where social crisis has no limit. Social crises coming from abuses by big capital capitalism. - The world is open in the technical aspect, technology, internet, information, where these phenomena are the social crises. Conflicts are tensions that carry certain problems of an old order to a new social order. Conflicts in the former Yugoslavia was born as neglecting the national issue (ethnic crisis.)

The influence of the Avar Khanate on the ethno-political situation in South-Eastern Europe

This article provides an in-depth examination of the ethno-political impact of the Avar Khanate in Southeast Europe from the 7th to the 10th centuries. The Avars, through their military prowess and strategic settlement practices, brought about significant changes in the political and cultural landscape of the region. Their influence extended beyond warfare, as they played a crucial role in reshaping the ethnic composition and political equilibrium of Southeast Europe. The article delves into various aspects of Avar life, including their war economy, settlements, and agricultural and craft activities, highlighting how these factors influenced neighboring peoples and cultures. The Avars' interactions with the Byzantine Empire and other neighboring entities are also explored, emphasizing their role in shaping the region's long-term historical trajectory. By analyzing these multifaceted influences, the study provides valuable insights into the ethno-political legacy of the Avar Khanate, offering a nuanced understanding of their lasting impact on the region. The research underscores the importance of the Avars in the broader context of Southeast European history, contributing to a deeper comprehension of the historical forces that have shaped the region's development over the centuries. This comprehensive analysis not only enhances our knowledge of the Avar Khanate but also sheds light on the broader ethno-political processes at play during this critical period in Southeast European history.

A Handful of Peaceful Simple Men on The Hill: Monte Cassino Monastery

Monte Cassino Monastery, founded by St. Benedict on the hills of Monte Cassino near Rome, Italy, in the Middle Ages, pioneered the formation of European culture and civilization and the development of Western medicine with its rich library and hospices where monks were educated and also served the patients. However, it was an important center of science and culture, offering a retreat to the leading scientists of its time (they were translating the works of Eastern scientists into Latin). Benedict's rule had three basic principles: peace, reading, and manual labor. The monastery established close relations with political and religious authorities, as it enjoyed the support of the nobility and also recruited the children of the aristocracy into its ranks. Later, with many monasteries and a chain of monasteries established in line with the teachings of St. Benedict, he contributed to the formation of the cultural and political map of Europe. He had indirect influences on the events of his time through his close relations with the leading religious and political actors of his age (papacy and royalty, nobility). During the reform movement, it was one of the leading figures of its time. And also supported the reforms of Pope Gregory VII. During the abbacy of Desiderius II. the monastery had good relations with the East Roman Empire, and as due result Byzantine art was imported to the West. In addition, it played an active role in the First Crusade by hosting the Crusaders on their way and with the loans it gave. The Abbey of Monte Cassino significantly influenced the scientific, cultural, and political life of Europe. This study aims to explore the impact of Benedictine Monte Cassino Monastery on Western Europe’s scientific, cultural, and political arena.

Hellenistic Period Watchtowers and Hillside Settlements Identified in “Vezirköprü” Surveys

Vezirköprü, one of the largest districts of Samsun (Amisos), an important port city of the Black Sea, has been the scene of continuous settlement from the Eneolithic Period to the present day thanks to its fertile soils, rivers and its location on an important road. The district, which first appears as a village settlement under the name Phazemon in Strabo, became a city in the Roman Period and was named Neoklaudiopolis. The city called Andrapa in the Byzantine Period took the name Vezirköprü in the Turkish Period and has survived to the present day. The city has witnessed many struggles in this process, including the struggle of the Pontic Kingdom and the Roman Empire. The greatest witnesses of these events were undoubtedly castles and watchtowers. The most famous of these is the Sagylion Castle, localized to Büyükkale in Vezirköprü, which is also mentioned in Strabo. Located on the foothills of Tavşan Mountain, the castle appears to be a typical Mithradates castle due to its location and structures. Although these fortresses built in the region were one of the greatest weapons used by Mithradates Eupator VI against the expansionist policies of the Romans, it is understood that these fortresses were not used on their own but supported by watchtowers selected at the dominant points of the land. Although many fortresses in the Pontos Region have been researched, and some have been excavated, watchtowers have not been sufficiently investigated. This study aimed to shed light on the Hellenistic Period of Vezirköprü by introducing the watchtowers identified during the surveys and the hillside settlements built around them.

Climate-driven versus anthropogenic induced erosion of the last 3000 years from an ancient lake in the Southern Phokis Plain (Desfina), Greece

The timing and causes for erosional events at the Kastrouli (Greece) archeological site – a Late Myceneaen with reuse in later periods – are presented. Two borehole sediment cores (max 6 m depth), collected from the footsteps of the settlement hill plain, were studied. Sedimentary analysis and luminescence dating techniques investigate and identify periods of soil aggradation in this record. Moreover, optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating confirmed the concept of an ancient lake during Kastrouli settlement times. Macroscopic overview of the stratigraphic structure for each core, included lithological and textural evaluation of the core sediments, assessments of grain size, and determination of the geochemical and mineralogical composition of the sediments. X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) techniques were applied for the mineralogical and geochemical analysis. OSL ages from seven sediment horizons spanned from the Ottoman period to archaic times. All lithological findings correlate with the results of the electrical tomography survey conducted in same area. Extrapolation of the Logarithmic fitting of the data back in time of prehistoric Late Mycenaean era of Kastrouli verifies a lake deeper than 10 m, with a considerable enhancement in soil aggradation of 1.2 cm/year. Attempts to dry out the area are evidenced by the hydraulic works found in two engineering sinkholes. Sedimentation changes had occurred in the local environment over the last 2500 years, and soil aggradation underwent significant fluctuations in the two studied cores. The Roman period (a wet period) and the Byzantine period experienced high aggradation rates. By contrast, soil aggradation rates in southern Phokis (Kastrouli region) have remained exceedingly low from the Ottoman era (circa 13th century) to the present. In the context of the Phokis case study, it appears that the sedimentation rates, driven by climate, have strengthened anthropogenic activities.

Transmisogyny, Ableism and Compulsory Cisness: Case Studies from Byzantium

Abstract This article uses case studies from Byzantium to demonstrate a new trans framework for gendered historical analysis that recognizes identity as both fluid and painful. Instead of placing the emphasis on whether or not we can call an individual trans, it explores the forces that produced cisness, and the cis and trans lives people carved out amidst them. We find ableism and transmisogyny at the heart of three important pieces of trans history from the middle Byzantine period: a description by Michael Psellos of a child whose femininity is framed in terms of disability, Nikephoros Basilakes’ Confirmation and Refutation of the story of Atalanta, and Psellos’ own expressions of gendered identity in their epistolography. Focusing on the collusion of cisness and able-bodiedness produces a complex image of how some Byzantines could incorporate gender transgression into a cis life, while others negotiated life outside the boundaries of acceptability. More broadly, this framework reveals the entanglements of transness and cisness, which demand that historical analysis does not stop at the borders of inner states.