Byzantine Research Articles

Reaching Consensus in the Byzantine Empire: A Comprehensive Review of BFT Consensus Algorithms

Byzantine fault-tolerant (BFT) consensus algorithms are at the core of providing safety and liveness guarantees for distributed systems that must operate in the presence of arbitrary failures. Recently, numerous new BFT algorithms have been proposed, not least due to the traction blockchain technologies have garnered in the search for consensus solutions that offer high throughput, low latency, and robust system designs. In this article, we conduct a systematic survey of selected and distinguished BFT algorithms that have received extensive attention in academia and industry alike. We perform a qualitative comparison among all algorithms we review considering message and time complexities. Furthermore, we provide a comprehensive, step-by-step description of each surveyed algorithm by decomposing them into constituent subprotocols with intuitive figures to illustrate the message-passing pattern. We also elaborate on the strengths and weaknesses of each algorithm compared to the other state-of-the-art approaches.

Medieval Caucasian Consumption and Identity: A Study of Splashed Sgraffito Wares

NEW AND DISTINCT CERAMIC TYPES emerged from the cultural centres of the Islamic Caliphate in Western Asia beginning in the eighth century AD. Islamic potters carefully added colour, glaze, and finishes to their vessels, which became luxury items throughout the Caliphate. People within the sphere of influence of the Islamic Caliphate slowly adopted objects, such as unique styles of glazed pottery, which symbolised status and power. The Byzantine Empire and Islamic Caliphate both influenced the material culture of the Southern Caucasus, which ebbed and flowed between them both. In particular, the emerging Caucasian polities in medieval Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan began to produce splashed sgraffito ceramics in the 9th and 10th centuries AD that were very similar to those created by Islamic potters in centres such as Baghdad, Samarra, and Nishapur. Scholars have explained such changes in Caucasian consumption patterns as the result of influence and trade between the Islamic Empire and the Caucasus; however, they have not considered the cultural implications of such a change. My paper discusses how Caucasian elites and eventually even the peasantry used splashed sgraffito to construct their individual and group identities. I examine three sites from the Caucasus where local potters produced and used splashed sgraffito ceramics. I assess Ani in Armenia, Shamkir in Azerbaijan, and Tbilisi in Georgia. My analysis suggests that ceramics played a larger role in the construction of political and individual identity at a time when independent kingdoms were emerging in the Caucasus.

The Portrayal of the Holy Convicts from the 5th Step of the Ladder of John Climacus in the Russian Art of the 16th Century

In the art of Rus’ of the Late Middle Ages there is a certain number of scattered pieces of art that share an iconographic cycle of the Monastic Feats — images of different sorts of self-torture that are described in the 5th logos of the Ladder of John Climacus. This chapter of the Ladder was copied not only as a part of the whole treaty, but on its own as well and inspired a ramified iconographic tradition first in the Byzantine Empire and then, since the 16th century, in Rus’. These monks resort to the mortification of the flesh for their ultimate absolution. In the article, all the examples of the Monastic Feats iconography which survived from the 16th century are taken to examination and analysed. As a result, two new attributions are proposed, one for the illuminated manuscript of the Ladder from the collection of the riznitsa of Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius and another for the vita icon of John Climacus from the Rybinsk Museum Reserve. From their analysis within the relative artistic context stems a suggestion of their Novgorod origin. In addition, a different and more early dating is proposed for the Rybinsk icon in relation to its identification with an image mentioned in the inventory of the Antoniev monastery in Novgorod. Some ideas are expressed about the choice of the subject of the Monastic Feats for the galleries of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin that were repainted after the fire of 1547. The conclusion of the article is that the spread and development of the iconography of the Monastic Feats should be ascribed to the art of Novgorod at the era of archiepiscopacy Macarius or soon after. Therefore, it is the Novgorod art that played a decisive role in the creation of the visual representation of the 5th logos of the Ladder, one of the most expressive and impactful pieces of text in the Slavic literacy.

Europe following Galen.

Unlike previous chapters, this is not about the teachings of a specific individual. Rather, it traces the slow changes in milieu and practice in the centuries following the death of Galen. They were to be profound. The Roman Empire fell in the middle of the 5th century. The Christian religion became increasingly dominant in the west, not only in spiritual matters but also in every activity related to culture and learning. The Byzantine Empire became increasingly important in the east. Islam was founded and began to spread in competition with Christianity. Academic advances develop best in stable societies so that it is not surprising that this was not a period of new ideas. Galen had gained overwhelming authority. The most valuable work on surgery to be written during these times was Book VI of Paul of Ægina's encyclopedia.

Arab-Byzantine and Umayyad coins from Marea/Philoxenite: preliminary observations

Archaeological research at Marea/Philoxenite, conducted by the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw in collaboration with the Archaeological Museum in Kraków since 2000, has focused mainly on the site of the Great Basilica — one of the largest Christian basilicas of Egypt — and some other parts of the city. Research to date has shown that the city reached its peak development during the Byzantine period. It was one of the most important centers along the route leading from Alexandria to the sanctuary of Saint Menas at Abu Mina. To date, the site has yielded more than 8000 coins, the majority of them Late Roman minimi. Among the finds are a small group of Arab-Byzantine coins struck after the Arab conquest of Egypt in AD 640, as well as Umayyad coins introduced after the monetary reform of ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān in AD 696/7. This article presents preliminary observations on the Arab-Byzantine and Umayyad coins discovered thus far in the course of fieldwork at Marea/Philoxenite.

THE PATERNUS PLATE AND ITS SYMBOLISM

The Paternus Plate and its Symbolism. The eucharistic disk attributed to bishop Paternus of Tomis is a well-known artifact of the 6th cen tury. Since its discovery in 1912 it was approached from several perspectives, going from the evolution of the late antique and early Byzantine art to the study of the foreign policy of the Eastern Roman Empire. The present study takes into discus sion the symbolic significance of its decoration and reads it in the larger context of the artistic evolution of Byzantium before iconoclasm. Regarded in the context of the silver patens of the 6th century, the central monogram of Christ on the Paternus plate reveals itself as representing more than just an ornament. For the believer it had a clear symbolic significance: it represented Christ himself offering him the Communion. The central motive was also connected to the border decoration, con taining eucharistic symbols familiar to the contemporary viewer from several re ligious texts and discourses. Regarding such a eucharistic artifact with eusebeia, the 6th century believer was introduced into a salvific atmosphere, allowing him a glimpse into eternity.

ОБСТАВИНИ УКЛАДЕННЯ ТА ПОЛОЖЕННЯ ДОГОВОРУ 568 р. ПОМІЖ ЛАНГОБАРДАМИ ТА АВАРАМИ

As of the early 550s, the diplomatic sphere of the Eastern Roman Empire on the Danube Limes was in a state of relative consolidation. In many ways, this was facilitated by the system of checks and balances between barbarian political associations on the northern border of the Empire. The autocrator Justinian the Great (527–565), professing the goal of political neutralisation of his neighbours, had been engaging the political associations of the Hepidians, Lombards and Antes in alliance relations since the 530s. These associations were fully or partially involved in the cohort of allies and federations of Constantinople, repelling the barbarian attacks of the Empire’s opponents in the region. At the same time, the internal contradictions that were brewing among the rulers of the barbarian associations could not provide the political system of Constantinople on the eastern bank of the Danube with promising development. One of the main reasons for the instability of relations between Justinian’s federates was the involvement of the Kingdom of the Hepidians in the Empire. In the second half of the 6th cent., the latter occupied the Danube and Tisza valleys, bordering the Roman provinces of Pannonia II of the Diocese of Dacia and Moesia I of the Diocese of Thrace. In 526, the Lombards became the Hepidians’ neighbours to the west. Being in a state of protracted conflict since then, both sides could not ensure victory without the participation of third parties. At the same time, the imperator Justinian and his predecessor, Justin I (518–527), were not interested in providing military assistance to their allies. The nature of the confrontation between the Lombards and the Hepidians changed with the arrival of the Avars in the region of Central and Eastern Europe. Having become federates of Constantinople in 557, the Nomads were interested in obtaining the provinces of Pannonia II and Illyric for settlement. A dispute over these territories with Emperor Justin II (565–578) led to the actual breakdown of the nomads’ treaty with the Empire. King of the Lombards Alboin (566–572) proposed to grant the Avars these territories for settlement. At the suggestion of the barbarian monarch, the nomads received the desired lands in exchange for military assistance to the Lombards during the conflict with the Hepids. As a result of the negotiations between Alboin and the Avar Khan Bayan (562–602), an agreement was concluded, the postulates of which formed the basis of relations between the proto-state of the nomads and the newly formed Kingdom of the Lombards until the beginning of the 7th cent.

The Fall of Constantinople: A Critical Analysis of Its Bearing on Islamophobia Discourse

This essay examines the fall of Constantinople in 1453 as a critical juncture for the playing out of Chrisitan-Muslim relations. Particularly, this historical moment demonstrates the significant theological schism between Orthodox and Latin Christianity that overshadowed the external threat posed by the Ottomans. The fall marked the end of the Eastern Roman Empire and highlighted the deep-rooted theological tensions within Christianity, tensions that were so profound that many Orthodox Christians preferred Ottoman rule over submission to the Latin Church. This preference stemmed from a desire to maintain theological autonomy and avoid the doctrinal compromises required by the Latin Church. The essay critically assesses the contemporary scholarship on Christian Islamophobia, arguing that it often overlooks the internal Christian divisions and portrays Christianity as a monolithic entity united against Islam. By focusing on the diverse Christian attitudes towards the Ottomans, particularly the Orthodox perspective, the essay demonstrates that the fear of theological compromise with the Latins was considered a worse fate than Muslim conquest. This analysis challenges the prevailing narratives in Islamophobia literature by highlighting the necessity of acknowledging intra-Christian tensions to fully understand the historical dynamics of Christianity and Islamophobia. Through an exploration of various Christian responses to the Ottoman threat and the subsequent establishment of the millet system, the essay advocates for a more nuanced portrayal of Christianity’s internal divisions and their impact on the construction of Christian identity and attitudes towards Islam.

Taxes and the tax system in agriculture of the Byzantine Empire from the III to the IX century

Taxes and the tax system in agriculture of the Byzantine Empire from the III to the IX century

“Into the Sea of Forgetfulness”: An Analysis of Anna Komnene’s Alexiad in Relation to the First Crusade

Anna Komnene’s account of the First Crusade in her work The Alexiad provides invaluable insight into the Byzantine perspective of this pivotal event defining the 11th century. While shunned in a monastery, she wrote her celebrated work known as The Alexiad. Anna’s primary motivation for writing the biography stems from her desire to emphasize the accomplishments of her father, especially in regards to protecting the Byzantine Empire against invaders, both Latin and Turkish. For Anna, the crusade functions as a Western pretext for taking land away from the Byzantines. Comparing specific sieges in the First Crusade to their Latin counterparts provides a significantly more nuanced comprehension of the Crusades from a Christian perspective. Anna's Byzantine perspective contradicts the simplified characterization of the First Crusade as a united Christian front against the Muslim forces.

Carski baldahin nad ulazom u crkvu - oblici, prostorni konteksti, ikonografski programi i smisao kupole u srpskim pripratama XIV veka

The churches commissioned by King (later Emperor) Stephen Dušan, his important dignitaries, and later Serbian rulers-e.g., Holy Archangels near Prizren, Lesnovo, Hilandar, Markov Manastir, Ravanica, and Manasija-often have a narthex or an entrance porch covered by a dome. This architectural element is additionally emphasized by a specific program of painted decoration-as witnessed by several preserved ensembles-which, like the one in the nave's dome, contains some representation of Christ surrounded by members of the heavenly ranks. Through the choice of iconographic elements of Christ or accompanying personages, these compositions are often imbued with a royal subtext. Such an architectural and iconographic solution has its precedents in some Byzantine monuments from the 10th to the 12th century, of which the most important for the Serbian examples, as their potential models, are probably the Athonite katholika and the main church of the Pantokrator Monastery in Constantinople. The prevalence of this architectural element notably increased during the Late Byzantine period, particularly in political entities whose rulers sought independence and even aspired to imperial dignity, such as Epirus, which bordered the Serbian state, and later Mystra. In these Byzantine churches, the specific form of this micro-architectural feature and its strategic placement at the church entrance can be associated with imperial patronage and royal visits. Given the well-supported hypothesis that this paradigm was adopted into Serbian architecture with the same imperial connotation, this study examines its spatial, formal, and iconographic elements, along with its semantic and ideological context. The author's ongoing research of this phenomenon encompasses all preserved and relevant examples within the Serbian Empire, Byzantium, and the broader Byzantine world. However, for the purpose of this article, the discussion will be limited only to Serbian monuments, include an examination of their potential models, and underscore particular nuances in meaning exhibited by their spatial solutions and iconographic programs.

Whatever You Bestow on Him, You Will Bestow on Me: Key Motifs of Early Byzantine Letters of Recommendation

The letter of recommendation was known in Antiquity as a separate genre of letter writing for which a certain set of compositional techniques and formulae were developed. In Byzantium, too, the letter of recommendation was in great demand: letters in which the author presents his protégé to the addressee and, as a rule, asks him to perform something for him are not difficult to find in the epistolary collections of many authors from the 4th to the 15th century. Meanwhile, while the ancient letter of recommendation is well studied, the etiquette of this genre in the Byzantine tradition has hardly been investigated yet. The purpose of this piece is to characterize the etiquette norms of Greek letter of recommendation in the early Byzantine period (4th — early 7th centuries). The subject of the study are, first of all, literarische Privatbriefe, belonging to Libanius, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, John Chrysostom, Synesius of Cyrene, Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Procopius of Gaza and others, but also private papyrus letters. Their analysis leads to the conclusion that there is a wide variability of the canons of the letter of recommendation, the absence of any rigid scheme that presupposes a clear sequence of structural elements. At the same time, it reveals six recurrent etiquette motifs, all of which are subordinated to a single goal — to persuade the addressee to patronize the recommended person. These motifs are analyzed in detail, and stable formulas are indicated for some of them. An attempt is made to determine to what extent the canons of Greek letters of recommendation of the 4th–7th centuries go back to the ancient tradition. The letters of recommendation of Cicero and Pliny the Younger, as well as letters preserved on late antique papyri, are used as material for comparative analysis.

Imitation Curtain Depictions from Byzantine Cappadocia

By scrutinising examples of imitation curtain patterns on Cappadocian wall paintings, this article aims to comparatively evaluate other curtain imitation compositions seen in Byzantine art. In addition to this, the use of curtains in civil and religious architecture (especially at the entrances of large structures) in the Byzantine Period and the theological importance of imitation curtain patterns in the Byzantine Period are also discussed. Curtains were found in all areas of the Empire, although few have survived. In addition to the positive influences of Old and New Testament texts, religious commentaries called tractates written by Gregorius of Nyssa, one of the Cappadocian Church Fathers, may have encouraged the use of curtain patterns in Christian religious structures. Based on this, the theological explanations of aniconic curtain patterns are also included in our article. The article also aims to prove that this pattern we encounter in Byzantine art is a continuation of Roman art traditions. It is possible to find curtain patterns in a lot of handiwork from the early Byzantine Period. Among the churches of the Byzantine Period in the Cappadocia region, which is our main subject, imitation curtain patterns are primarily seen in wall paintings dating to the 9th - 11th centuries. In this study, we have identified that the only exception to this situation is the example in the apse of Ihlara Bezirana Church (end of 13th century, beginning of 14th century). The pattern was implemented especially in the aniconic ornament of the naos or apse wall paintings of the churches in the region, and it is noteworthy that they were painted as the main motif in a row, forming the border of the figural scenes on the lower parts of the walls (in the areas below the human waist). This study explains the properties of the imitation curtain patterns found in the wall paintings of Cappadocia and compares them in terms of ornamental properties, pattern composition, size, colour scale, and theological roots and development in Byzantine art. In addition, the importance of the curtain pattern, its usage areas and its features in the Byzantine Empire have been explained with examples.

The oral and dental health of the skeletons found in wells from Pisidia Antiocheia (Yalvaç, Isparta) dated to the Byzantine Period (11-12th CE)

Bu makalede Pisidia Antiokheiası kazılarında (Yalvaç, Isparta) 2013 (33 ve 39) ve 2014 yıllarında (65 ve 75) bulunan 4 kuyudan çıkarılmış iskeletlerin ağız ve diş sağlığı incelenmiştir. Bizans Dönemi’ne (11-12. yy.) tarihlenen, 22 adet iskeletin 13’ü erişkin, 5’i erişkin yaşın altındaki bireylere aittir, 4 bireyin ise yaşı belirlenememiştir. Toplam 306 adet dişin %91,9’u (281 adet) daimi, %8,1’i (25 adet) süt dişlerinden oluşmaktadır. Daimi dişlerin 28 adedi (%9,9) kadın, 108 adedi (%38,3) erkeklere aittir. 145 adedinin (%51,6) ise ait olduğu cinsiyet belirlenememiştir. Ağız ve diş sağlığı, çürük, hipoplazi, diştaşı, alveol kemik kaybı, ante-mortem diş kaybı (AMDK), apse gibi göstergeler dikkate alınarak değerlendirilmiş, çağdaşı topluluklarla karşılaştırılmış ve topluluğun çağdaşlarına göre durumu ortaya konulmuştur. Diş çürüğü %7,47; mine hipoplazisi %33,1; diş taşı %42,7; alveol kaybı %45,2; AMDK %8,9, apse % 5,69 oranında saptanmıştır. Patolojilerin diş tiplerine göre nasıl dağılım gösterdiği de incelenmiş ve diş taşı ile alveol kaybı kesicilerde (incisive), mine hipoplazisi köpek dişlerde (canine), AMDK ve apse de büyük azılarda (molar) en fazla görülmüştür. Bu patolojilerin alt (mandibula) ve üst çenedeki (maxilla) dağılımı gösterilmiştir. Cinsiyet grupları arasında gösterdiği dağılım da saptanmıştır. Çürük, AMDK, apseye erkeklerde; hipoplazi, diş taşı, alveol kaybına kadınlarda daha fazla rastlanmıştır. Mine hipoplazisi maxillada, AMDK ise en çok mandibulada gözlemlenirken, diğer patolojilerde belirgin bir fark bulunamamıştır. Patolojilerin diş tiplerine göre dağılımında ise diş çürüğü küçük azılarda (premolar), mine hipoplazisi köpek dişlerde, diş taşı ve alveol kaybı kesicilerde, apse ve AMDK büyük azılarda en fazla görülmüştür. 25 adet süt dişinde ise herhangi bir patolojiye rastlanmamıştır.

BEING BYZANTINE IN THE POST-1204 EMPIRE OF CONSTANTINOPLE: CONTINUITY AND CHANGE (SOCIETY AND CULTURE)

The impact of the Latin conquest of Constantinople has often been treated from either the perspective of the Western newcomers who established themselves in various Byzantine territories, or from the perspective of the Byzantines who left the regions that came under Latin control and who managed to establish themselves elsewhere (Nicaea, Epiros, Trebizond). In this contribution the momentous consequences of the Fourth Crusade are addressed from the perspective of those Byzantines that came under Latin rule. By zooming in on a selection of individuals and subgroups a picture is sketched of the varied Byzantine experience within the confines of the (Latin) Empire of Constantinople after 1204. Attention will be given to the various – political, religious, socio-economic and cultural – spheres of society. The focus is on the capital and the region around Constantinople, but other regions come into view as well (Thessaloniki, Adrianople, Philippopolis, Achaia/Morea, Attica, Beotia, Euobia, Crete, etc.). Chronologically this contribution is primarily limited to the period until the loss of Latin Constantinople in 1261

Strategic Planning in the Middle Byzantine Period: A "Limitrophe" Policy Reintroduced?

In order to maintain or improve its political stability and overall might every state conducts certain policies, both domestic and foreign, throughout its history. They are usually a result of a systematic planning, encompassing in the process multiple state sectors. The Byzantine Empire was no exception. Throughout centuries of existence, the imperial government implemented numerous reforms and carried out reorganisation in the military, administrative and fiscal departments, with the intention to improve its governance. Creation of the military commands – strategides, thémata and tágmata corps are only some of the changes, and their implementation certainly required prior planning in accordance with the requirements and capacity of the state. In relation to foreign policy, starting from the mid-ninth century, a formation of a number of client states that were more or less politically dependent on Constantinople can be observed on the Byzantine borders; their existence ended around the mid-eleventh century. This paper aims to examine the process of establishing client states on the Byzantine borders, i.e., whether it was a policy initiated and subsequently applied by the imperial government as a result of some pre-determined planning, or whether it was just an ad hoc solution. This paper was presented on the 24th International Congress of Byzantine Studies, Venice and Padua, 22-27 August 2022.

“The Navigators”. Mediterranean Cities and Urban Spaces in the Passage from Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages (ca. 600 – ca. 850 CE)

The aim of the paper is to reassess urban trajectories in the Mediterranean during the passage from Late Antiquity to the early Middle Ages. This will be done by focusing on the sites of Amorium, Gortyn, Eleutherna, and Comacchio, places which transcend both the terrestrial and maritime, and the political and military frontiers of the Byzantine empire and the Umayyad Caliphate. Archaeology and material culture will be used – in a comparative perspective – to dissect urban bodies in terms of use of space and function of spatial relationship. This is in order to document the construction of urban models, structures, and infrastructures, which, although often stemming from diverse centralized political and administrative policies, nevertheless accommodated common, cross-cultural developments, including the creation of commercial and artisanal facilities, construction or restoration of religious buildings as foci of settlement, and resilience of local elites as a catalyst of patronage and levels of demand. Particular attention will be given to the role of public spaces as the frame of reference. Indeed, such spaces will be used to show how artistic and architectural displays operated, cultural assumptions could be (re-) discussed, and different types of buildings coexisted. In this respect, the paper will also explore the continuous importance of civic infrastructures and religious buildings as pillars of a yet coherent urban fabric, representatives of the power and wealth of local city-oriented elites, and conveyors of political, artistic, and spatial symbolism, as mutually recognized and experienced by the communities frequenting seventh-to-ninth century eastern Mediterranean urban spaces.

PECULIARITIES OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE OF THE LATE BYZANTINE PERIOD AND IN THE TIMES OF TURKISH RULE

PECULIARITIES OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE OF THE LATE BYZANTINE PERIOD AND IN THE TIMES OF TURKISH RULE

An Overview of Land Routes in Byzantine Anatolia (ca. 4th-7th c. CE)

This paper presents an overview of land routes in Byzantine Anatolia during the period between the fourth and seventh centuries CE and aims to explain the development of the routes in Byzantine Anatolia in a changing context. Understanding the emergence of routes, which expanded in Byzantine Anatolia, comes from the earlier-built Roman roads. The development and the use of routes during the period in question were largely shaped by the construction and use of Roman roads, both administratively and politically. Archaeological evidence indicates that the Romans restored the main roads until the early seventh century, and maintained them during the Byzantine period. The use of routes was significantly impacted by the foundation of Constantinople as the new capital and the development of more ‘centralized rule’ in the Roman Empire in the fourth century. Rather than explaining and discussing all the routes of Anatolia in detail, this study aims to outline the ways in which major routes developed in Byzantine Anatolia.

Figürliche Reliefs frühchristlicher Zeit in Kleinasien (4.-6. / 7. Jahrhundert n.Chr.)

In Asia Minor, only a relatively small number of reliefs with biblical depictions or images of saints from the early Christian period (fourth to sixth / seventh centuries AD) have been preserved. They represent an exceedingly small percentage of what was likely actually produced, with a substantial amount considered to be lost. This makes it difficult to classify the art based on geographic region, in comparison, for example, to the proliferation of the Roman grave reliefs of the second and third centuries. Nevertheless, Asia Minor was of an area of great importance for the theology of early Christianity. Numerous churches from the Early Byzantine period have been preserved or at least documented. Many were large and magnificent buildings, showing excellent masonry techniques, and some had unusual shapes. The churches were richly adorned with capitals, barrier plates, and ambons, as well as floor mosaics. Although only a few remnants of wall paintings and mosaics are preserved today, it can be assumed that most of churches possessed them. While there are portrait sculptures and busts of excellent quality, very few reliefs are based on the Bible. They are almost all very simple pieces, in terms of craftsmanship, with a few exceptions. The existence, not only, of the customary iconography, but also rare and unique character depictions of the reliefs of biblical scenes, illustrates the reach of the Byzantine Church in even the most remote areas of that region, shedding light on Late Antique art in Asia Minor as the heartland of the Byzantine Empire.