Byzantine City Research Articles

Late Byzantium in the Works of Margarita A. Poljakovskaja

This paper commemorates Margarita Adol’fovna Poljakovskaja (1933–2020), the head of the Ural school of Byzantine studies and the respected authority in the history and culture of late Byzantium. The author makes the reader acquainted with Professor Poljakovskaja’s academic biography, the topics of her researches, and the results of her studies in various aspects of the Byzantine history from the thirteenth to fifteenth century. The paper has revealed a few key topics studied by Professor Poljakovskaja: monastic properties in late Byzantine cities; Byzantine rhetoric and epistolography; social and political thought; intellectual life; social structures in the Byzantine society; palace ceremonies and court culture; and the Byzantines’ emotional world and daily life. It has been stated that although Professor Poljakovskaja used abundant and varied methodology produced by historical and philological researches, she preferred the anthropological approach. Her attention concentrated on a person and the person’s notion of the time and self. Reconstructions of intellectual and social life in the period of decline of the Byzantine empire loomed large in the historian’s studies, and the key topic of her researches was the problem of the “person, society, and power”.

Disheveled Tenacity: The North Bay of Roman and Byzantine Dor

Tel Dor overlooks the eastern Mediterranean on the southern Levantine coastline of Israel. Underwater surveys and a coastal excavation in the North Bay of Dor have produced evidence of an anchorage at the 4th–7th century CE Byzantine city of Dora. The existence of such an anchorage at the northwestern extremity of the city had been contemplated in the past. Also identified are traces of maritime activity from the time period between the 1st century BCE and 3rd century CE and from earlier periods. The concurrent use of the North Bay and the nearby South Bay and Tantura Lagoon during late antiquity mostly took advantage of the natural coastal morphology, augmented only modestly by man-made infrastructure. These three sites served local and interregional maritime traffic at Dor, a clear attestation to a decentralized resource management that resists strict categorization. The resulting image of the maritime interface(s) at Dor does not fit perceptions of a harbor as a spatially rigid, centralized managed phenomenon. Such a seemingly disheveled use of the scarce resource of natural anchorages has shown remarkable tenacity over the longue duree in the southern Levant, as typified by Dor in late antiquity.

Archaeometric and archaeological study of painted plaster from the Church of St. Philip in Hierapolis of Phrygia (Turkey)

This paper presents the results of archaeometric and archaeological study of the fragments of painted plaster discovered during the recent archaeological investigations inside the Church of the Apostle Philip in Hierapolis of Phrygia, one of the great Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine cities of southwestern Turkey (Pamukkale, Denizli Province).The analyses were firstly performed, directly on site, at the deposit of the Italian Archaeological Mission in Hierapolis where all the excavated materials were stored, using a protocol including non-invasive techniques based either on imaging (Ultraviolet fluorescence and Visible Induced Luminescence) or single spot analyses (Fiber Optic Reflectance Spectroscopy and portable X-Ray Fluorescence spectrometry). Then, the most representative and interesting samples were sampled for further studies with laboratory techniques such as optical and electron microscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, micro-Raman and X-ray diffraction.The following pigments were identified: red ochres and minium for the red, lapislazuli and Egyptian blue for the blue, ochres for the yellow and carbon for the black. Lapislazuli and minium were found in the apse area, and, in particular, minium in the Early/Middle-Byzantine phase.Regarding the plasters, a different number of layers was identified for the Middle-Byzantine fragments that present an inner painted layer.

Rethinking ruralization in terms of resilience: Subsistence strategies in sixth-century Caričin Grad in the light of plant and animal bone finds

The modes of subsistence of the early Byzantine inhabitants of the Balkans are subject to intense discussion. The core of the problem is the lack of sites of a clearly discernible agricultural character after the collapse of the villa system in late Antiquity and the question of how to interpret certain changes in the architecture and layout of fortified sites that indicate ruralization. Even though animal bones and plant remains are strong indicators for economical strategies, only few sites of the region have so far been put to bioarchaeological analysis.Recent research in the early Byzantine city of Caričin Grad in Illyricum has produced new evidence for subsistence economies that sheds some light on the “rural” side of this splendid city, which was newly built in the foothills of southern Serbia in the fourth decade of the sixth century. The city comprises many features of classical urbanity and a large number of churches. Yet very modest dwellings were also found, as were several agricultural implements.In this paper, preliminary results from the archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological analyses carried out in Caričin Grad are presented and situated in the context of published assemblages from other contemporaneous sites in the Danube provinces.Whereas the “ruralization” of early Byzantine cities is commonly seen as a symptom of the decline of classical urbanity, this discussion of the findings aims for a positive interpretation, in which the ruralization of urban life can instead be seen as a clever strategy to enhance urban food security.

Problem czasu i przyczyny dekadencji teatru w Chersonezie

Up to the 6 th century the municipal objects providing entertainment in Byzantine Empire were the theaters. Analyzing the archeological reports and publications by O.I. Dombrovsky who discovered the theater of Chersonessus in 1954 and taking into account the historic situation in the 4 th century we come to the conclusion that the theater could not discontinue its functioning only as a result of Christianity introduction. The reasons of its vanishing were possibly the inner crisis of dramatic arts itself that happened in the 4 th century as well as the administrative reform. Other than that, stratigraphic analysis of the architectural complex revealed that the most part of the theater probably had not been reconstructed during the 4 th century and up to the 6 th century. The performances here had been probably different at that time. And in Chersonessus the Christian temples were built on the site of the theater only in the 6 th century, like in the other byzantine cities. Up to the 6 th century the municipal objects providing entertainment in Byzantine Empire were the theaters. Analyzing the archeological reports and publications by O.I. Dombrovsky who discovered the theater of Chersonessus in 1954 and taking into account the historic situation in the 4th century, we come to the conclusion that the theater could not discontinue its functioning only as a result of Christianity introduction. The reasons of its vanishing were possibly the inner crisis of dramatic arts itself that happened in the 4 th century as well as the administrative reform. Other than that, stratigraphic analysis of the architectural complex revealed that the most part of the theater probably had not been reconstructed during the 4 th century and up to the 6 th century. The performances here had been probably different at that time. And in Chersonessus the Christian temples were built on the site of the theater only in the 6th century, like in the other Byzantine cities.

Problem czasu i przyczyny dekadencji teatru w Chersonezie

Up to the 6 th century the municipal objects providing entertainment in Byzantine Empire were the theaters. Analyzing the archeological reports and publications by O.I. Dombrovsky who discovered the theater of Chersonessus in 1954 and taking into account the historic situation in the 4 th century we come to the conclusion that the theater could not discontinue its functioning only as a result of Christianity introduction. The reasons of its vanishing were possibly the inner crisis of dramatic arts itself that happened in the 4 th century as well as the administrative reform. Other than that, stratigraphic analysis of the architectural complex revealed that the most part of the theater probably had not been reconstructed during the 4 th century and up to the 6 th century. The performances here had been probably different at that time. And in Chersonessus the Christian temples were built on the site of the theater only in the 6 th century, like in the other byzantine cities. Up to the 6 th century the municipal objects providing entertainment in Byzantine Empire were the theaters. Analyzing the archeological reports and publications by O.I. Dombrovsky who discovered the theater of Chersonessus in 1954 and taking into account the historic situation in the 4th century, we come to the conclusion that the theater could not discontinue its functioning only as a result of Christianity introduction. The reasons of its vanishing were possibly the inner crisis of dramatic arts itself that happened in the 4 th century as well as the administrative reform. Other than that, stratigraphic analysis of the architectural complex revealed that the most part of the theater probably had not been reconstructed during the 4 th century and up to the 6 th century. The performances here had been probably different at that time. And in Chersonessus the Christian temples were built on the site of the theater only in the 6th century, like in the other Byzantine cities.

The Formulation of Urban Identity on Byzantine Seals

In western Europe, from the twelfth century at the latest, many urban communities designed and used corporate seals to prove that they functioned as institutions with full legal and executive capacities. In contrast, Byzantine cities never developed into similarly independent self-governing communities or city states and, consequently, never used city seals. There are indications, however, that, from the tenth century on, Byzantine cities developed a distinctive civic culture and, to some extent, a civic consciousness based upon growing economic and military power and the existence of local cults. The article presents various seals used by individuals, which express a feeling of belonging to one's city—clues that have gone unnoticed in previous research. It is concluded that seals, with their rich iconographic, historical, and philological information, deserve to be considered more carefully as invaluable witnesses to the ways in which cities and collective urban identity were understood in Byzantine culture.

Eglise et Etat dans l’Illyrie protobyzantine a la lumiere des sources epigraphiques et litteraires (VIe-VIIe siecles)

e present study examines the relationship between the Church and the state in the prefecture of Illyricum, in the VI-VII centuries. It aims to discuss the bishops’ roles and attributes in the cities of proto-Byzantine Illyricum, as well as their relationship with the municipal and provincial authorities. e research is based on the analysis of literary (Miracula Sancti Demetrii) and epigraphic sources. e Code of Justinian (527–565) highlights the important place of the bishop in the city. In the Byzantine cities of Illyricum, the bishop heads the council of municipal notables and is considered their natural representative. He intermediates between the seat of central power and the municipal administration. A series of inscriptions discovered at Izbičanj (in Serbia), Serdica (So#a), Tesalonic, Gortyna (Creta) and on the island of Skiathos provide us with information on the bishops’ participation in the execution of urban public works. In the context of the invasion of the Balkan Peninsula by Avars and Slavs, the bishops of essaloniki take upon themselves the roles usually played by the municipal and imperial authorities, in that they assure the protection of the population and organize resistance against the invaders. In 535, Emperor Justinian creates the autocephalous archbishopric Justiniana Prima.

Cultural and Physical Space as a Condition of Artistic Vision: The Aegean in Greek Artists Maleas, Ghikas and Tetsis

The article investigates creative inspiration from, and response to, the Aegean Sea and islands. Inspiration during the 20th century relates to the return to what creators perceived as a civilizing bosom. Some examples of both the conditions and the fruit of modern creativity springing from Aegean islands are examined against this ancient and archetypal background, both natural and cultural; plus, a particular gymnastics of artistic vision. This exploration is pursued through discussions on themes such as the following: The material and spiritual formation of Post-Byzantine Aegean space: the deep descriptive (ekphrastic) faculty and tradition ingrained and recovered here, linked with the appreciation of great views from high rocks over planes, gorges and the open sea, which informed the urban design of Byzantine cities. The sophisticated manner of adjustment to, and appropriation of, mountainous physical topography. Prismatic architectural forms are in constant discourse with the natural topography and have affected artistic representation. The particular role of the Aegean in the formation of important artists and creators: modern intuitive interaction with the Aegean natural beauty, hard and exhilarating light, and heritage, is both material and spiritual. As is shown, the Aegean expresses the culture-nature dialectic par excellence, exemplified in the surreal metaphysical clarity and plasticity of islands like Santorini and Hydra. There have been foreign (for instance, Brancusi’s, Giacometti’s and Modigliani’s) as well as indigenous modern creative responses to the plastic values of the Aegean and its art. Modern Greek artists like Konstantinos Maleas explored and depicted the many pictorial dimensions of islandness as the epitome of Greek space. The paper focuses on his work inspired by Santorini. Besides Maleas, the analysis stresses the particular role of the Aegean in the formation of Nikos Hadjikyriakos Ghikas and Panagiotis Tetsis, both inspired by the island of Hydra. In all three cases, it is shown how, in parallel with the effects of the Aegean, these artists also communicated with the pictorial traditions of the West as well as the East, particularly with Japanese art.

Worked bone and antler from Halmyris: An insight on everyday life of a frontier post of Scythia

Halmyris is one of the most important Roman settlements from the Danube Delta, in the easternmost part of Scythia province during the late Antiquity. Its remains are located 2.5 km east from the present-day Murighiol village and 2 km south from the Saint George distributary of the Danube (in Antiquity named Peuce). The fort (2nd – 4th century AD) and early Byzantine city (5th-early 7th century AD) experienced a long existence benefiting of strategic position. Archaeological research on-going from 1981 led to the discovery of the three gates, the thermae, the praetorium, the Basilica with crypt, the barracks on the western side and of the military complex near the north Gate. Additionally, a large number of epigraphic fragments documents the existence of a unique (throughout the Roman Empire) ‘sailor's village’ - vicus classicorum and we may suppose that workshops for processing bone and antler were based there. In autumn 2014, research in the extramural area of the fort started due to necessity of building a new site-museum and tourist's information point. In this paper bone and antler finds found as a result of the excavation are presented.

Женский костюм германского происхождения в погребальном контексте ранневизантийских городов Северного Причерноморья (V–VI вв.)

Женский костюм германского происхождения в погребальном контексте ранневизантийских городов Северного Причерноморья (V–VI вв.)

The Archaeology of Anatolia: Recent Discoveries (2011–2014) Volume I

The Archaeology of Anatolia: Recent Discoveries (2011–2014) Volume I

The Byzantine cisterns of Constantinople

Abstract The most unusual aspect of Byzantine Constantinople's water system was the large number of cisterns throughout the city. This research integrates the two most recent in-depth studies of the cisterns to determine that there have been at least 211 cisterns attributed to the Byzantine city. The distribution of the cisterns indicates that the size and number of cisterns constructed reduced over time, with more and larger cisterns developed prior to the 7th century. Cisterns are concentrated in the older area of the city and sparser on the periphery, but with later ones more common in the peripheral areas, suggesting that water provision was extended over time, and although the majority of cisterns are small, most storage volume is concentrated in the three largest open-air cisterns. The extended, detailed list produced will allow more in-depth investigations to proceed. Analysis of the distribution of cisterns across the city creates a framework for understanding the development and functioning of Byzantine Constantinople's complex water supply system.

Μυθικό παρελθόν-χριστιανικό παρόν: Πρόσληψη και προβολή των πνευματικών σχέσεων δύο βυζαντινών πόλεων. Το παράδειγμα της Θεσσαλονίκης και της Λάρισας (9ος-14ος αι.)

Mythical Past-Christian Present: perception and fostering of Spiritual ties between two Byzantine cities. The case of Thessalonike and Larissa (9th-14th c.)The cult of patron saints was not only relevant to the religious affiliation of the Byzantines but also influenced the individual political and cultural identity of each city, occasionally leading to a city claiming priority in time and supremacy over competing Byzantine cities. This does not seem to be the case of St. Demetrios and St. Achillios, patron saints of Thessalonike and Larissa respectively: saints, pilgrims, high ranking officials and scholars created a network of communication between the two Byzantine cities. After the sack of Thessalonike (the second most important city of the empire) by the Arabs in 904, the scholars of Larissa went on to question, through their hagiographical texts, The dominant position of Thessaloniki as a religious center in mainland Greece. On the other hand the literati in Thessaloniki, (who originated from Constantinople) and especially Eustathios, praised the administrative and military center of Thessaly not on its chistian symbol, Achillios, but rather because of the city's mythical past.

Descoperiri monetare recente la Histria (Sectorul Acropolă Centru‐Sud) / Recent monetary discoveries at Histria (Acropolis Centre‐South Sector)

Within a four-year research project (2013– 2016) funded by the University of Bucharest, a new sector of the archaeological site of Histria (Istria, Constanța County) was opened, conventionally named Acropolis Centre-South (ACS). During the archaeological research from 2013– 2014, 18 trenches (C001– C018) were opened. The numismatic material discovered in 2013 and 2014 inside the Acropolis Centre South sector consists of Greek, Roman and Byzantine coins. Chronologically, the 21 coins discovered inside the Acropolis Centre-South sector and another one found outside are distributed as follows : five Greek coins from 5th– 3rd century BC, a pseudo-autonomous Istrian coin issued most likely in the second half of the 2nd century AD, nine Late Roman Bronze coins from the 3rd– 5th century AD and seven Byzantine coins from the 6th– 7th century AD. We note a rare bronze coin having Apollo seated on the omphalos on obverse and Dionysus accompanied by the inscription ICTPIA-NΩN on revers (no. 13), issued by Istrian mint during Roman period. The chronology of this Istrian bronze coin is still under discussion but some elements suggests a date in the second half of the 2nd century AD, during Commodus’ reign. Two Roman bronze coins, one of CONCORDIA M- LITVM type struck in Cyzicus mint, c. 295– 299 AD, in the name of Diocletian (no. 1) and the second of CONSTANTINIANA DAFNE type issued in the years 328/ 329 in Constantinople mint by Constantin the Great (no. 2) are rare through monetary discoveries from Histria. Habitation in the Acropolis Centre-South sector in the 7th century AD is revealed by a half-follis minted by Phocas, in the years 603– 610 AD. The authors discuss about the last phase of the Byzantine city in the light of the coins discovered at Histria. In 2014, during the excavations from Acropolis Centre-South sector five Greek coins were found : one Macedonian bronze coin struck by Philip II (no. 8) and four Istrian autonomous bronze coins (nos. 9– 12).

Family Inheritance: Classical Antiquities Reused and Displayed in Byzantine Cities

A small group of gates of Byzantine city walls were decorated with reused, ancient figural sculpture, including the figure of Heracles. In some cases, such as the herms arranged horizontally on the main gate to the citadel of Ankara, this subject had not been identified before. Along with providing a detailed analysis of the decoration of the Zindan Kapı at Ankara, this paper traces the occurrence of the same iconographical subject, in similar architectural and urban contexts. Other examples considered as a comparison are the “Gates of Heracles” in Ephesos, the “Golden Gate” in Constantinople and the arch in the Theodosian Forum in the same capital city.

The Byzantine-Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach

The Byzantine-Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach

Geomagnetic and geoelectrical prospection for buried archaeological remains on the Upper City of Amorium, a Byzantine city in midwestern Turkey

On the basis of geophysical imaging surveys, including geomagnetic and geoelectrical resistivity, possible archaeological remains and their spatial parameters (i.e., location, extension, depth and thickness) were explored to provide useful data for future excavations on the Upper City of the ancient Amorium site, which comprises a large prehistoric man-made mound. The surveys were performed very close to the main axis of the Basilica, and the derived geophysical traces indicated some subsurface structures that appear to confirm that more-substantial brick and masonry buildings lie near the present-day surface of the mound. Analyzing the local gradients by total horizontal derivatives of pseudogravity data enhanced the edges of the magnetic sources. Additionally, a profile curvature technique, which has rarely been applied to potential field data sets, dramatically improved the magnetic-source body edges and the lineaments that may be associated with buried archaeological remains. The depths of these possible anthropogenic remains were estimated by applying the Euler deconvolution technique to the geomagnetic data set. The Euler solutions on tentative indices indicated that the depths of the source bodies are not more than about 3 m. Moreover, geoelectrical resistivity depth slices produced from the results of two- and three-dimensional linearized least-squares inversion techniques revealed high-resistivity anomalies within a depth of about 3 m from the ground surface, which is in close agreement with those obtained by applying the Euler deconvolution technique to the magnetic data. Based on the existence of some archaeological remains in the vicinity of the surveyed area, these geophysical anomalies were thought to be the possible traces of the buried remains and were suggested as targets for excavations. This study also emphasized that the data-processing techniques applied in this investigation should be suitable for providing an insight into the layout of the unexcavated parts of the Amorium site.

10.5937/kultura1443219m = The cult of Saint Archangel Michael among Benedictans in the area of Bar mitropoly and Kotor episcopacy: Social and cultural conditions ( 9th - 13th century)

In the middle of the 9th century, the Benedictan order was on the rise in South Italy. Since the end of the 8th century, Montecasino has been the champion of cultural revival, and a network of abbeys has been established across the regions of Benevento, Puglia, Campania, Calabria and other regions. Members of this order, within European borders, were reputed missionairies who contributed greatly to the christianisation of many Germanic and Slavic peoples. However, the Benedictans from South Italy had suffered attacks by the Saracenes and other invadors who raided and plundered their monasteries, which culminated with their conquer of Montecasino in 883AD. Because of the strengthening of the Byzantine rule, the conditions on the east Adriatic coast seemed far more suitable and stable for life of monastery communities. Also, Slavic population settled back to Byzantine cities, and slowly, they moved towards the coastline zones, building good relations with the urban Roman population. The Slavs had still worshiped old gods or were only partly christianized. In addition to being respected as successful missionaries, the Benedicants raised their monasteries in rural communities close to main roads and city centers, while their way of life fitted in the mentality and habits of an aggrarian society. Christianisation of the Slavic population enabled spreading of cultural models from the city centres under the Byzantine rule, which lead to strenghtening of ideological positions and fortification of their factual rule. On the other side, the Holy See looked benevolently on these efforts, since the Benedictans almost unnoticably contributed to strenghtening of the Roman Church positions in Dalmatia. The Benedictans took their missonary endevours seriously, as we can see from a very smart selection of the cults of saints - primarily patrons of big abbeys.

Integrated Ground‐penetrating Radar and Archaeological Surveys in the Ancient City of Hierapolis of Phrygia (Turkey)

ABSTRACTHierapolis of Phrygia (Turkey) was one of the most important Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine city in Asia Minor. The Italian Archaeological Mission in more than 50 years of activity has brought to light and restored many monuments of the ancient city, helping to understand the urban layout in the various periods of its history. In 2011 ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) prospection, with the aim of supporting the archaeological excavations and surveys, was performed in some important sample areas by a team of the Institute for Archaeological and Monumental Heritage of the National Research Council of Italy. The analysis of the GPR measurements revealed many anomalies that could be ascribed to archaeological structures, as well as other anomalies of presumable natural origin. The data collected were georeferenced in the digital archaeological map of Hierapolis using a RTK‐GPS system. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.