Byzantine City Research Articles

Palaeoenvironmental evolution and decline of the harbours of the Roman and Early Byzantine city of Elaiussa Sebaste (southeastern Turkey): natural and anthropic causes

ABSTRACTThe ancient city of Elaiussa Sebaste, currently Ayaş, is located on the southeastern coast of Turkey. It was one of the main trading Mediterranean harbours from the Augustan period until the early Byzantine era. The Arab invasion in the 7th century ce marked its definitive abandonment. A significant historical topic concerns the palaeoenvironmental evolution of the northern and southern harbours of Elaiussa Sebaste, including their decline and burial. An interdisciplinary study analysed six cores drilled in the current plains corresponding to the former harbour basins. A geoelectrical study, integrated with borehole stratigraphy, reconstructed the geometry of the carbonate bedrock that forms the accumulation base of the marine sediments. Sediments deposited from the 8th century bce to the 6th century ce include the development phases of the ancient city from the 3rd century bce onwards. Sedimentology, micropalaeontology (foraminifers, ostracods), palaeobotany (pollen, non‐pollen palynomorphs, microcharcoals, plant macroremains) and Pb isotopes provided a model of the environmental evolution in both harbour basins. The main harbour expansion phase, marked by a change in Pb concentration, is hypothesized to have occurred between 140 and 220 ce, which is consistent with the historical sources indicating the development of the city during the mid‐Roman Imperial period.

City and Countryside in Byzantine Anatolia: Amorium

Amorium is a key site for the period AD 700-900 owing to its historical importance as the capital of the Anatolic Theme. The well preserved remains provide an exceptional opportunity to study the layout and function of the Byzantine city and its excavation sheds light on the transition, modification, and continuity of the settlement between the Late Roman and Byzantine periods. The evidence from twenty years of excavation points to the existence of a large and prosperous city during Early and Middle Byzantine times, where various trades and crafts were practised and which served as the centre of a vibrant rural community engaged in agriculture as well as animal husbandry. The destruction layers from the capture of Amorium by the Arabs in 838 create a fixed horizon and reference point for the entire archaeology and material culture of early to mid-ninth century Anatolia. Pottery and coin finds in particular provide good indicators of the level and nature of economic activity. In this study some conclusions are drawn from that material, and discussion of it is set in the context of other sites and the interpretation of finds there. The evidence from Amorium presents new insights that appear at odds with accepted views of the Byzantine world in the Early Middle Ages.

Diplomats and Betrayers: Christian Negotiators and the Confessional Rewriting of Surrender during the Islamic Conquest (634–642 AD)

ABSTRACT Combining evidence from Muslim and Christian sources, this paper attempts to offer some plausible readings as to the identity of the mediators who negotiated the submission of the main Byzantine cities in the context of the Arab conquest (mid. 7th. c.). It also explores how later Christian attitudes towards Islamic lordship and the definition of sectarian confessional groups were retrojected into the portrayal of the actors involved in the negotiations. It argues that ecclesiastical hierarchs, supported by local Arab–Christian elites, had to get involved in the negotiations to fill the void left by Constantinopolitan officials as result of Heraclius' foreign policy. It also contends that the involvement of Roman Arab leaders conjured up images of treachery and betrayal in later normative narratives which remodelled them as apostates and collaborators.

Датировка скальных виноградодавилен Юго-Западной Таврики в современной историографии

In the south-western area of Taurica, there are more than 230 stationary rock-cut wine-presses. From the moment when F. Dubois de Montpereux discovered them in the early 1830s, they became the subject of particular research. These production facilities for the primary processing of grapes testify to the agricultural specialization of the local population in the early Middle Ages. In the 1970s, the Soviet scholarship developed the “Khazar” interpretation of the origins and dating of the said wine-making complexes (from the eighth and ninth or ninth and tenth centuries). The evidence base for this attribution is presented by E. V. Veimarn’s publications. Hypothetically, the flourishing of local winemaking was associated with the conquest of the Crimean Peninsula by the Khazars, in result of which safe trade routes towards the Khazar khanate developed to make the latter the main outlet for the Crimean wine, which was exported in locally produced Black Sea amphorae. In the future, the said interpretation gained support from V. N. Danilenko, A. I. Aibabin, A. G. Gertsen, and other researchers. The modern historiography, such as the articles of A. G. Gertsen, V. E. Naumenko, and other scholars, hypothesized a narrower dating of the Crimean wineries from the second half of the ninth to the first half of the tenth century (“Byzantine” version). The publication of the materials from the backfill of winery no. 10 at Mangup and carved-in-bedrock pits in the vicinity of the Eski-Kermen wine-presses, which were covered during the construction of new quarter I, clearly defined the chronology when typologically closed wine-presses ceased to exist as the second half of the tenth century. The researchers have explained the beginning of their construction as the purposeful policy of the Byzantine empire for the development of this region following the establishment of the theme of Klimata in 841. This is indicated by the similarity of the Crimean rock-cut wine-presses and similar complexes discovered in Byzantine Anatolia. Local viticulture and winemaking corresponded to common Byzantine traditions. There is no direct connection between the dates when the production of the Black Sea amphorae started in the Crimea and the functioning of the rock-cut wineries. Presumably, the manufacture of grooved amphorae (A. L. Iakobson’s variant 2 or class 36 of the Chersonese classification of 1995) was related to the production of wine in the South-Western Taurica. From the finds of the said amphorae both on the sites of the Saltovo-Maiaki culture and on the territory of the coastal Byzantine cities and towns there are reasons to reconstruct a more extensive trading network in Crimean wine than it was considered before.

New insight into mid-Byzantine burial practices: bioarchaeological implications from the North Cemetery infant remains of the Lower City Church of Amorium (Afyonkarahisar, Turkey) (10th-11th centuries AD).

Amorium is a Byzantine city located in the province of Afyonkarahisar, Turkey. Excavations in the 2007, 2008 and 2009 seasons yielded many tombs containing non-adults, mostly infant burials, located to the north of the Lower City Church while the south of the Church was reserved for family and adult tombs. Among the excavated trenches A20 is the largest area and located immediately to the east of the baptistery, other trenches in the Lower City Church (A17, A19, A22, A35, A36, and A38) are located further away from the baptistery and consist of smaller rooms. Skeletal remains of 280 individuals from these trenches dating to 10th to 11th centuries AD were analysed in order to find out if there are any indications for differences in their social status, preferential choices for the burial places, or age-related distribution of the burials of the non-adults in the North Cemetery. This study, together with the baptism traditions and social hierarchy of the Mid-Byzantine era, tentatively suggests that the A20 area might have been reserved for children of families of higher rank in society as it was the closest area to the baptistery (presumably some of the infants had not lived long enough to be baptised), whereas infants and some older children of lower rank in the society were buried in outlying areas. Hence, this study attempts to offer a new insight into burial practices in mid-Byzantine Amorium.

Early Byzantine city walls of Hierapolis in Phrygia: demolishing and recycling the Imperial era monuments

The study concerns the city walls of Hierapolis in Phrygia (Denizli, Turkey), which were built in the second half of the 4th century AD or at the beginning of the 5th century AD, by systematically recycling architectural blocks from Imperial-era public monuments and funerary edifices. The preserved remains of the fortifications enclose the city along its northern, eastern and southern sides, leaving out large sectors of the urban area. Within the research activities of the Italian Archaeological Mission, topographical DGPS surveys of the remains were performed, and a geodatabase of the reemployed blocks was implemented with three main aims: i) the reconstruction of the building site of the city walls; ii) the identification of the demolished monuments of the Imperial-era used as “quarries” and the study of the procurement strategies of stone materials in the early-Byzantine Hierapolis; iii) the analysis of the relationship between the large building site of the fortifications and the other coeval construction sites and their impact on the socio-economic life of the city. The research allowed us to trace the development of the building site of the city walls, which, starting from the north, mainly reemployed blocks from the necropolises, North Theatre, North Agora and the shops along the plateia not-included into the early Byzantine Hierapolis. Moreover, numerous materials from the Gymnasium and other monuments located in the central part of the city but not yet identified on the ground were especially reused in the eastern and southern sectors of the walls. Lastly, the location of the recycled blocks made it possible even to reconstruct the various transportation routes linking the demolished monuments to the different sectors of the city walls. On cover:Late Roman wall, the portion immediately south of the West Gate (Porta Oea) with re-used blocks from first-century mausolea (Drawing by Francesca Bigi) and Tombstone of Regina from South Shields (Arbeia) (Tyne and WearArchives and Museums/ Bridgeman Images). E-ISSN (online version) 2611-3686 ISSN (print version) 0065-0900

The Architectural Pedigree of İznik’s 14th-Century Green Mosque in Turkey

A monument constructed in the dynastic beginnings of the Ottoman Empire, the 14th-Century Yeşil Camii (Green Mosque), was one of the first buildings sponsored after the conquest of the Byzantine city Nicaea (İznik). Commissioned by Çandarlı Kara Halil Hayreddin Pasha (1364-1387), the mosque became a landmark of a burgeoning Ottoman government that soon reigned over three continents. With the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the centuries-old Ottoman Empire, with all its institutions, was abolished. The Türk Tarih Tezi (Turkish History Thesis) became the propaganda of the nation-state, denoting a national spirit among Turks in all periods of history. In this historicist reading, the Green Mosque became a beacon signifying the zeitgeist of pure national building forms for the Turks. In the late 1930s, the secular appraisal of this thesis began to wane in favor of a religious-ethnic reading. Imperial monuments with an Islamic past came to befit the locus of Turkish identity. Nevertheless, the ideological transformation of the Green Mosque transcended any objectifying vision. The nationalist lens shifted, emphasizing Muslim-Turks over the Turkish race and iterating a formal revelation of the Green Mosque that has perpetuated the long-standing understanding of the building. This essay presents the Green Mosque in view of the texts written by prominent architects and historians, against the backdrop of crossing boundaries between architectural historiography and nationhood of space, from early beginnings to late 1980s.

Byzantine Polykandelon of the 10th—13th Centuries from the Main Basilica of a Byzantine City on the Eski-Kermen Plateau

Byzantine Polykandelon of the 10th—13th Centuries from the Main Basilica of a Byzantine City on the Eski-Kermen Plateau

On the Provenance of the Tesserae in the Mosaic Pavements of Parthicopolis (4th - 6th c.). Local Quarries, Deposits and Import (Preliminary Report for Some Mosaic Tesserae from Basilica No 2)

This article examines several mosaic tesserae from the mosaic panel of the exonarthex of the early Christian basilica No 2 in Parthicopolis (today’s town of Sandanski).The studied mosaic tesserae are made of glass, brick and stone - marble and sandstone. After the analysis: micro- and macroscopic, method applied: EDS; XRD analysis of the mineral phases and others. The composition and possible production of glass for the smalta tesserae has been established, the composition of the brick tesserae; of two types of white marble tesserae, of sandstone tesserae has been determined.In antiquity, and especially in the early Byzantine period, several marble quarries of very good quality were exploited in the Middle Strymon area. It has been established that the stone tesserae were mined from deposits around the ancient and early Byzantine city, quarries Ilindentsi (‘The marble quarries of Trajan’), and the glass is imported. An assumption has been made about the possible production on site in the city of a type of glass tesserae - with a degree of crystallization. The chemical and structural analysis of the tesserae reveals the origin of the material, stone and glass, the latter in the form of a finished product distributed as an import by Thessaloniki merchants and undergoing only the final stage of heating, cutting and polishing in local workshops. Although research on the origin of tesserae from mosaic panels from the early Christian basilica complexes in Parthicopolis is only in the beginning, research proves the origin of tesserae materials, the supply of mosaic workshops mainly with local stone material, and trade in imported glass for enamel mosaic and its final stage of in situ preparation in Particopolis.

ТОРГІВЛЯ ТА ГРОШОВИЙ ОБІГ ВІЗАНТІЙСЬКОЇ ІМПЕРІЇ

The article is devoted to the main directions and features of trade and money circulation of the Byzantine Empire. Describing the main sectors of the economy, the author notes that it was based on agriculture. Agriculture, viticulture and livestock were its main industries. At the same time it is noted that in the Middle Ages Byzantium was the most urbanized country. There were more than 1,000 cities with Constantinople, the largest of them. The author notes that the Byzantine cities were not only important administrative but also economic centers. It was characteristic of the Byzantine economy that a quarter of the gross national product came from handicrafts and trade. Describing trade, the author of the article notes that Constantinople was not only the capital and residence of the emperor, but it acted as an intermediary in trade between West and East. Convenient and safe routes have contributed to the growth of trade. Iron, perfume, spices, opium, and precious stones were imported from India; silk was exported from China; from Iran - soft wool; from Asia Minor - meat and metals; from Ethiopia - slaves. Thin linen was imported from the West to Byzantium, and Constantinople was not only a consumer of these goods, but also a center of commission trade and resale. The author also pays attention to Russian-Byzantine trade relations. Russia exported to Byzantium part of the tribute and military booty, especially slaves and raw materials. It imported mostly expensive fabrics, various ornaments, weapons, spices, etc. In the second part of the article the author refers to the Byzantine trade of the XII- XV centuries. During this period, immigrants from the Italian cities of Genoa, Pisa and Venice were in significant competition with Byzantine merchants. The Venetians, who established a powerful colony in Constantinople, became especially famous in this regard. Gradually, the empire lost control of its own economic and financial resources, which contributed to a huge uncontrolled outflow of Byzantine capital to Europe. The conclusions note that trade facilitated the exchange of goods not only between Byzantium and the West. It became a powerful leader of Byzantine cultural influence on European countries. However, cultural dominance contradicted Byzantium's economic backwardness of European countries. External defeats and internal problems increased the empire's dependence on foreigners, and duty-free trade, although filling the market with many European and Asian goods, quickly led to the decline of Byzantine crafts and the degradation of agriculture.

Test of the Nabataean Painted Fine Ware typology in Aila’s Area K

Although Nabataean Painted Fine Ware (NPFW) has been examined in light of Stephan Schmid’s chronological typology since the late 1990s, few stratified contexts with NPFW from outside Petra have been published, and none derived from contexts occupied continuously from the Nabataean through Byzantine periods. Questions remain about the dating of later dekorphases (3–4) due to a lack of contexts. This paucity is remedied, however, by Area K at Roman Aqaba/Aila, Jordan. Area K was a domestic complex, just inside the later Byzantine city wall, excavated from 1994 through 2002. Using associated numismatic evidence and imported fine wares (primarily Eastern Sigillata A and African Red Slip), this paper argues that NPFW Dekorphase 3b appeared at Aila in the second half of the 1st century CE, and Dekorphase 3c appeared shortly afterwards, around the time of the Roman annexation in the beginning of the 2nd century.

Amorium’da Bulunan Halkalı Kılıçlar

During the excavations in the byzantine city of Amorium, which are conducted from the year of 1988 systematically, two iron swords were recovered from the Trench XA of the Enclosure, which is located in the Lower City and from the Trench A4 of the Lower City Church respectively. The sword from the Trench XA of the Enclosure is saved integral while the sword from the Trench A4 of the Lower City Church is in fragmentary condition. Both swords have been dated in the Middle Byzantine Period and belong to the wide typology of the ring pommeled swords, judging from the shape of their pommel. Examining the hilt of the sword from the Trench A4 of the Lower City Church a cross-guard that belongs to the wider typology of the so-called ‘’sleeved or cuffed type guard’’ has been detected. Apart from the typological examination, the ring pommeled swords from Amorium raise useful conclusions about the characterization of the locations which these swords were found and together with the evaluation of the rest of the archaeological findings could contribute to this direction. To conclude, the swords from Amorium are considered rare and unique because a combination of different typological features is being observed, something which distinguishes them from the ring pommeled swords of the nearby civilizations. Thus, we can suggest a new typology of a byzantine ring pommeled sword with a sleeved cross-guard.

“Reading mysterious Chersonesos writings”. Interactive excursion-play around cultural heritage objects of Byzantine Chersonesos (part 2)

The proposed scenario of the interactive excursion-performance is designed for a children's audience of 9–11 years. The route is planned as a tour of the historical and cultural space, and reinvigoration of this Byzantine city. Thus, the excursion content is realized by means of a visual and associative consequence connected with the places of interests artistic artifacts: Christian character images reveal the world views of the medieval culture. The project is part of the academic partnership program of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after A.I. Herzen with the historical and archaeological museum-reserve “Chersonesos Tauric” and is implemented during visiting summer practices of bachelors of the Department of Theory and History of Culture.

“Reading mysterious Chersonesos writings”. Interactive excursion-play around cultural heritage objects of Byzantine Chersonesos (part 1)

The proposed scenario of the interactive excursion-performance is designed for a children's audience of 9–11 years. The route is planned as a tour of the historical and cultural space, and reinvigoration of this Byzantine city. Thus, the excursion content is realized by means of a visual and associative consequence connected with the places of interests artistic artifacts: Christian character images reveal the world views of the medieval culture. The project is part of the academic partnership program of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after A.I. Herzen with the historical and archaeological museum-reserve “Chersonesos Tauric” and is implemented during visiting summer practices of bachelors of the Department of Theory and History of Culture.

تحصينات مدينة عمورية ومواجهاتها الحربية في العصر العباسي الأول (132-232هـ/750-847م) Fortifications of The City of Amorium and their War Confrontations in the first Abbasid period (132-232 A.H. / 750-847 A.D)

الملخص: تهدف الدراسة إلى تسليط الضوء على تحصينات مدينة عمورية ومواجهاتها الحربية في العصر العباسي الأول وهو من الموضوعات المهمة الجديرة بالبحث، حيث إن عموريةتعد من أهم المدن البيزنطية، فهي أفضل مدينة بعد القسطنطينية، وقد قام الأباطرة الرومان ببنائها وتحصينها في القرن الخامس الميلادي، وتعاهدوها بالترميم والتحصين، مما جعلها قلعة عسکرية حصينة، وهذا ما أکدته المصادر التاريخية والشواهد الأثرية التي تؤيدها الاکتشافات الحديثة لبقايا مدينة عمورية الأثرية، وبسبب حصانتها ظلت عصية على المسلمين، رغم المحاولات العديدة لفتحها في العصر العباسي الأول (132-232هـ/750-847م)، إلى أن نجح الخليفة المعتصم بالله (218-227هـ/833-841م) في ذلک عام (223هــ-838م)، حيث قاد أکبر جيش عرفته الخلافة العباسية؛ کرد فعل انتقامي من الإمبراطور ثيوفيلوس (214-227هـ/ 829-842م) الذي اعتدي على الثغور الإسلامية، وقد اتبعت الدراسة منهج البحث القائم على الاستدلال والاستنتاج، وکذا المنهج التحليلي والتنقيب في المصادر التاريخية، وقد توصلت الدراسة إلى بيان أهمية عمورية الإستراتيجية والتاريخية والدينية، وتحصيناتها، ومواجهاتها العسکرية في العصر العباسي الأول. The study aims to shed light on The Fortifications of The City of Amorium and their War Confrontations in the first Abbasid period (132-232 AH / 750-847 AD ,It is one of the important topics worth researching, Amorium is one of the most important Byzantine cities, as it is the best city after Constantinople. The Roman emperors built and fortified it in the fifth century AD, and undertook restoration and fortification, which made it a fortified military fortress, and this is confirmed by historical sources and archaeological evidence supported by recent discoveries of the remains of the ancient city of Amorium and because of its immunity, it remained insensitive to Muslims, despite numerous attempts to open it in the first Abbasid period (132-232 AH/750-847 AD), ​​until Caliph Al-Mu'tasim Billah (218-227 AH/833-841 AD) succeeded in that year (223 AH/838 AD) Where he commanded the largest army known to the Abbasid Caliphate; As a retaliatory reaction from the Emperor Theophilus (214-227 AH/829-842 AD) who attacked the Islamic Thoghour. The study followed the research methodology based on reasoning and conclusion, as well as the analytical method And exploration in historical sources, The study managed to a statement of the Amorium strategic, historical and religious Amorium importance, its fortifications, and its military confrontations in the first Abbasid period.

The last caravans in antiquity: Camel remains from Caričin Grad (Justiniana Prima)

Camels played an important role in caravan traffic and long-distance communication during the early Byzantine period as indicated by new findings from Caričin Grad. Excavations at the site revealed the remains of an important early Byzantine city, which has been identified with Justiniana Prima founded in the 530 s by Justinian I (527–565). The city, created ex nihilo, in a rural area in the north-west of the province of Dacia Mediterranea, represents a distinctive example of late urbanisation. Given the existence of the city for only 80 years and the fact that the nearby locality remained uninhabited until modern times, the site has yielded well-preserved monuments and remains of material culture. They allow for a detailed study of the urbanism, architecture, material culture and other aspects of daily life from the second quarter of the 6th century to the beginning of the 7th century. Here we investigate the camel remains discovered in five locations in Caričin Grad. Morphometric and proteomic analyses, including both collagen peptide mass fingerprint analysis (ZooMS) as well as in-depth sequencing, revealed that the majority originate from hybrids of the dromedary and Bactrian camels. Supported by written sources from the Early Byzantine period, it appears as though the use of the Caričin Grad camels was primarily for civilian purposes. These results highlight the complementarity of morphometric and proteomic approaches and their value in better understanding the impact of the early Byzantine economy.

Job Versus Hercules: Virtue in the Articles of the Byzantine Suda Dictionary of the 10th Century

Introduction. In ancient mythology, the image of Hercules is one of the most popular, and his heroic cult is one of the most common. Having emerged from the “conglomerate of folk tales”, the image of Hercules was actively assimilated by the Greek and then Roman literary tradition. Hercules was a very popular hero among Greek tragic and especially comic poets. In Roman times, the final systematization of the image took place. The key role in this process was played by the works of Apollodorus “The Mythological Library” (2nd century BC), “Pictures” by Philostratus the Younger (2nd century BC) and “Description of Hellas” by Pausanias (2nd century BC). Within the framework of the classical tradition, the image of Hercules in Roman times was finally formed and unambiguous. Hercules is a hero, a demigod, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, who possessed amazing strength, who killed his children (and the children of his brother Iphicles) in an act of madness. He performed 12 labours at the request of Eurystheus. Hercules lived with the Lydian queen Omphale dressing in a woman’s dress. He was poisoned by his wife Deianira, burned at the stake on Mount Eta and ascended to Olympus, where he became the spouse of Hebe. Methods. The hermeneutic methodology, which ensured the correct understanding and interpretation of the text of the Suda dictionary and the ancient texts, on which this “antique” dictionary was based, is used in the article. The toolkit of the hermeneutic circle (pre-understanding and understanding of the text, interpretation of the whole based on knowledge of its parts) made it possible to highlight key elements (plots, signs and symbols) of the philosophical image of Hercules in the entries of the dictionary. Results. We can see a kind of “muscular Christianity”, when the strength of the body still corresponds to moral perfection and the withdrawal from the world does not contradict the active entry into the still polis institutions of urban life in Byzantine cities, among which the most important was the hippodrome and sports competitions. Christian authors actively used traditional sports metaphors and images of wrestling, but filled them with new Christian content. In the dictionary of the Suda, there is a kind of replacement of images that embody the samples of virtue. Hercules always loses to Job. It is indicative that the Christian rhetoric, relying on the philosophical symbolism of the apotheosis of Hercules, using the “sports” terminology of struggle, ignores the developed philosophical symbolism of Hercules, and fights against the mythological “fables” about Hercules. Using cynical and stoic terminology, Christian rhetoric opposes the comedic and dramatic image of Hercules, as Herodore of Heracles did in the 5th century BC. That is, the enemy is borrowed from Christian rhetoric along with philosophical symbols and terminology describing a difficult life full of trials as a virtue.

Transformation of the City in the Byzantine Period: Reuse of Bath and Bath-Gymnasium Buildings

Antik Çağ kentlerinde yerleşim karakterinin tanımlanmasında kamu yapıları önemli yere sahiptir. Kentlerin önem ve kapasitesi hamam, hamam-gymnasium, tiyatro ya da agora gibi kamusal yapılar ile birlikte değerlendirilmektedir. Ancak 4. ve 7. yüzyıllar arasında toplumsal yaşamda ve ekonomide görülen değişimler, kamusal yapıların işlevlerinin devamlılığının sonlanmasına neden olmuş, bu durum da yapıların dönüşümlerine ve yeniden kullanımlarına ilişkin sonuçlar doğurmuştur.
 
 Bu çalışmanın konusunu oluşturan hamamlar ve hamam-gymnasium kompleksleri, kentlerde halkın yıkanma gereksinimini karşılayan, ayrıca eğitim, spor etkinlikleri ve kültürel gereksinimlerine de cevap veren kentsel birimlerdir. Arkeolojik kanıtlara dayanarak hamamların ve hamam-gymnasium komplekslerinin kentsel işlevlerinin 5.-6. yüzyıllarda değişmeye başladığı gözlenir. Özellikle Hıristiyanlığın yayılmaya başlaması ile birlikte kilisenin ruhsal temizliğe önem verilmesi gerektiğini vurgulaması söz konusu işlevlerin zamanla azalmasına neden olmuştur.
 
 Bu çalışmada hamamların ve hamam-gymnasium komplekslerinin Geç Antik Dönem’de başlayan dönüşümünün yanı sıra Bizans Dönemi’ndeki konumu ve kullanımı incelenmiş; Geç Antik ve Bizans kenti morfolojisinin hamam ve hamam-gymnasium komplekslerinin dönüşümü üzerinden analiz edilmesi amaçlanmıştır. İnceleme kapsamında söz konusu yapılarda meydana gelen dönüşümün nasıl oluştuğu ve sonuçta yeni işlevin ne olduğu sorgulanmaktadır.
 
 Bu doğrultuda Aizanoi, Amorium, Aphrodisias, Arykanda, Assos, Elaiussa Sebaste, Ephesos, Hierapolis, Miletos, Myra-Andriake, Olympos, Patara, Priene, Rhodiapolis, Sagalassos, Sardes, Side ve Tralleis kentlerinde yer alan hamamların ve hamam-gymnasium komplekslerinin dönüşümleri incelenmiştir. İşlevsel nedenlerle kentte geniş bir alanı kapsayan bu yapılarda özgün işlevini devam ettiren örnekler olduğu gibi, özgün işlevini kaybedip kullanımdan çıktıktan sonraki dönüşümleri, yapının bir bölümünün ya da yapılardan geriye kalan arsanın kullanılması şeklinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Arkeolojik kazı raporları sonucu hamamların ve hamam-gymnasium komplekslerinin dinsel amaçlı dönüşümün yanı sıra, konut amaçlı, endüstriyel, savunma ve yönetsel amaçlı olarak farklı kullanımlarının olduğu saptanmıştır. Söz konusu yapıların dönüşümünde dinsel örgütlenmenin değişimi başta olmak üzere, kentsel alanın daralması sonucu arsa yetersizliğinin oluşması ve ekonomik hayatın yeni mecralarda gelişmesi gibi etkenlerin rol oynadığı dikkat çekmektedir.

Collective Fears and Public Moods in the Byzantine Cities during the Ottoman Sieges

The author analyzes the collective fears and the public moods in the Late Byzantine cities besieged by the Ottomans. The sources for the research are chronicles, historical and rhetorical works of Byzantine authors. The information contained in these texts allows us to understand what exactly the Byzantines feared being in the situation of the possible capture of the city by the enemy. As the present study shows, there were permanent ideas in the everyday minds of the Romanoi about the probable behavior of Ottomans towards the conquered population, and these ideas strongly determined the social activities of the inhabitants in the besieged cities.

Decline of the Byzantine Thalassocracy

After 1204, the Byzantine Empire lost control over the Eastern Mediterranean. The restoration of the Empire in 1261, however, did not recover its sea dominance. The Latins, especially the Venetians and the Genoese, who had possessions in the Aegean and the Black Seas and conducted active maritime trade there, established themselves in the region. The importance of sea routes for Byzantium increased dramatically given the territorial dispersion of the Byzantine possessions, the high activity of Europeans in the region, and the growing threat of an Ottoman conquest. This article analyses the specifics of Byzantine sea communications and their role in the fate of the Empire during the period of geopolitical changes between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Based on written sources, the author examines the condition of the Byzantine fleet, the role of foreigners in ensuring movement within and outside the Empire, and the meaning of the sea communication during the Ottoman sieges of Byzantine cities. The author reveals that the Empire could not provide stable and regular sea contacts between separate parts of its territories and external relations with the West on its own. The decline of the fleet and the lack of material resources forced the Byzantines to use foreign ships as means of transportation. The Italians, especially the Venetians, provided transport to the Byzantine emperors and diplomats who made official trips to the West, transported people and goods within the region, and provided food for the inhabitants of besieged cities. It is concluded that the transport dependence of Byzantium on the Italian maritime republics testified to its economic and political weakness. The loss of control over the sea routes in the Eastern Mediterranean and the degradation of its own transport system contributed to the decline and fall of Byzantium in 1453.