Bundelkhand Region Of Central India Research Articles

Assessment of rainfall erosivity for Bundelkhand region of central India using long-term rainfall data

Prevention of soil erosion requires long term assessment of rainfall erosivity and other related variables of the region. In the present study, four variables related to rainfall erosivity i.e. modified Fournier index (MFI), rainfall erosivity (R) factor, erosivity density (ED) and precipitation concentration index (PCI) were calculated. Long-term (1901-2021) daily rainfall data of Bundelkhand region (Central India) were used in the analysis. The above variables were assessed for spatial and temporal variability on annual and seasonal scale. The R-factor values range from 3010.61 MJ.mm ha-1 h-1 to 5346.53 MJ.mm ha-1 h-1, showing the region belongs to moderate to severe erosivity class. The mean annual R-factor, MFI, ED and PCI values for the Bundelkhand region were calculated as 4072.86 MJ.mm ha-1 h-1, 270.55 mm, 19.13 MJ ha-1 h-1 and 28.88, respectively. This study provides the insights of soil erosion problems of Bundelkhand region and would help in adopting the preventive measures and watershed development activities.

Clinical and etiopathological profile of pancytopenia in children (1-18 years): A study from tertiary care center of Bundelkhand region, central India

Background: Pancytopenia is defined by a decrease in all three blood components, that is, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, and anemia below the normal range. This study is an attempt to fill the lacunae regarding the information about pancytopenia in pediatric patients in the Bundelkhand region. The study aimed to study the clinical and etiopathological profile of pancytopenia in children (1–18 years) in the tertiary care center of the Bundelkhand region in central India. Materials and Methods: The present study was a hospital-based cross-sectional observational study conducted to learn about the clinical features, demographic and etiopathological profile of pancytopenia in children. The study was performed with 65 patients aged 1–18 years from September 2021 to August 2022 admitted to the Department of Paediatrics, Maharani Laxmi Bai Medical College and Hospital, Jhansi, and fulfilling inclusion criteria. IBM’s Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 23 was used for the statistical study. Results: Out of 65 patients, a maximum number of cases were in the age group of 1–6 years (55%). Our study revealed male predominance over females with male-to-female ratio of 2.09:1, mostly belonging to rural areas. The most common presenting complaint was easy fatigue in (90%) of patients followed by fever (54%). The most common physical finding was pallor (100%), followed by splenomegaly and pedal edema (38%) and (18%), respectively. Bone marrow cellularity shows hypocellular marrow (62%), hypercellular (31%), and normocellular (7%). Peripheral smears of most of the patients showed normocytic normochromic (34%), followed by macrocytic hypochromic (30%). Regarding etiology megaloblastic anemia (30%) was reported as the most common cause of pancytopenia followed by malignancies (30%) including myelodysplastic syndrome (9%), multiple myeloma (3%), acute lymphocytic leukemia (9%), and acute myeloid leukemia (9%) followed by aplastic anemia (14%) and sepsis (8%). The study also shows other rare causes of pancytopenia such as disseminated tuberculosis (6%), malaria (9%), and dengue (3%). Conclusion: In the present study, the most common etiologies of pancytopenia come out as nutritional causes, that is, megaloblastic anemia followed by malignancies then aplastic anemia.

Environmental benefits by adopting agroforestry systems: A case study in the Bundelkhand region of central India

Environmental benefits by adopting agroforestry systems: A case study in the Bundelkhand region of central India

Identifying the Ecotourism Potential Locations using AHP and Weighted Overlay Analysis: A case of Bundelkhand region in Central India

Ecotourism has been growing faster than other forms of tourism due to increasing awareness and an ongoing sustainable development paradigm. Its capacity to help grow the local economy and livelihood in backward and remote regions has been recognized in numerous studies in recent years. The Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh stands as one of India’s severely underdeveloped areas. Its condition arises from a drought-prone agrarian economy shaped by unfavorable geological and climatic conditions. The NITI Aayog & UNDP report from 2012 on the region identified tourism as one of the potential measures to fight poor socio-economic development in the area. Fortunately, the region has six protected areas yet to be explored for its full potential for ecotourism development. So, this study focuses on the initial step of ecotourism planning, i.e., mapping the potential ecotourism locations using a multi-criteria decision-making approach, in which eight diversified ecotourism-related criteria have been selected based on geographical characteristics of the region, literature and field observations. Those criteria have been weighted using the Analytical Hierarchy Process for GIS-based Weighted Overlay Analysis and suitability mapping. Further, two highly potential locations over the region have been identified through ecotourism potentiality mapping and verified through field visits.

EVALUATION OF AWARENESS AND KNOWLEDGE OF IONIZING RADIATION-RELATED HAZARDS AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES AMONG PATIENT’S ACCOMPANYING PERSONS/CARETAKER IN BUNDELKHAND REGION OF CENTRAL INDIA IN A TERTIARY LEVEL TEACHING HOSPITAL IN BUNDELKH AND A MEDICAL COLLEGE, SAGAR (MADHYA PRADESH)

Objective: Evaluation of awareness and knowledge of ionizing radiation related hazards and protective measures among patient’s accompanying persons or caretaker in Bundelkhand region of central India in a tertiary level teaching hospital in Bundelkhand Medical College, Sagar, (M.P.). Methods: This study was conducted as a questionnaire-based survey conducted in one tertiary-level teaching hospital in Bundelkhand Medical College, Sagar, M.P., from June 2021 to February 2022. A semi-structured questionnaire of 21 items was administered to 840 patient’s accompanying persons/caretaker selected as per inclusion/exclusion criteria. Information on demographic variables of the respondents intheir knowledge about ionizing radiation effects/hazard, radiation protection measures and source of their knowledge on ionizing radiation were taken and collected data used in the study by applying descriptive statistical analysis. Results: Majority of the participants in our study were male 548 (63.3%). Most of the participants, 635 (75.6%), did not have knowledge of ionizing radiation. Only 320 (38%) knew that ionizing radiation is hazardous. The majority of the participants, 399 (76.7%), were informed about radiation by the radiographers, while 121 (23.2%) read about it. A larger number of the participants, 620 (73.8%), had no idea about the meaning of radiation protection. The majority of the participants, 678 (80.2%), assisted their relatives during the examination. Most of the participants, 676 (80.1%), have seen the radiation warning sign before. Conclusion: This study showed that there is a low level of knowledge and awareness of radiation hazards and protective measures among patients’ accompanying persons or caretakers. It is obvious that public education via new papers, TV, holdings, etc. will contribute immensely to the spreading of awareness of the harmful effects of ionizing radiation and the measurement of for radiation protection measures.

Evaluation of water quality and its non-cancer risk in the rural environment of Bundelkhand region: geochemical and statistical approaches

ABSTRACT The Bundelkhand region of Central India has been facing increasing severity of droughts, water-level depletion and deterioration in water quality. In this perspective, an attempt has been made for a qualitative evaluation of surface and groundwater resources belonging to the rural environment of this region to understand the contaminant’s source and probable human health risk due to the intake of the available water. The water samples collected from this region were analysed for pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, total hardness (TH), major anions (F−, Cl−, HCO3 −, SO4 2−, NO3 −) and major cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+). The observations revealed a near-neutral to slightly alkaline nature of the studied water samples. The computed water quality index implies that around 82% water samples are of good to excellent category for drinking uses. Turbidity, TDS, TH and NO3 − were identified as the major parameters which violate the limits of drinking water. Geochemical investigations in association with multivariate statistical analysis identify carbonate weathering in coordination with the ion-exchange process as the major hydrogeochemical mechanism controlling the solute chemistry and concentrations of TH, TDS, HCO3 −, F−, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+. On the contrary NO3 −, Cl−, SO4 2− and K+ were strongly associated with anthropogenic activities. Water at most of the locations expresses positive saturation indices with respect to calcite and dolomite minerals, inferring the precipitation of these mineral phases. Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and percent sodium (%Na) values show a low alkali hazard and water can be used safely for irrigation purposes. However, high salinity in 39% of the water samples makes it unfit for application in agricultural fields. The non-carcinogenic hazard indices (HI) calculated by adding hazard quotient values of NO3 − and F− for child, adult male and female population show that more than 64% of the water samples are deemed to be unfit for human consumption.

Assessment of CMIP5 and CORDEX-SA experiments in representing multiscale temperature climatology over central India

Abstract The central India region has been seriously affected by repeated droughts in recent decades due to climate change, which is the main reason for conducting this research. It is still uncertain how the numerous climate models could precisely estimate the future climate for central India. The study mainly focuses on the forcing global climate models (GCMs) and the regional climate models (RCMs). The models have been checked using the coefficient of correlation (r2), Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) and an improved method, skill score (SS). The performance is also spatially checked on ArcGIS using the kriging interpolation. The bias-corrected GCMs performed more authentically than the CORDEX RCMs in signifying maximum and minimum temperatures for the Bundelkhand region in central India. Bias-corrected GCMs, EC-EARTH, CCSM4 and GFDL-ESM-2M affirmed the best models on multiple time scales for maximum and minimum temperature in the study region. Maximum NSE and r2 have been observed for seasonal minimum temperature. GCM-EC-EARTH has shown 97% to 98% accuracy, while GCM-GFDL-ESM-2M has demonstrated 84% to 97% accuracy among other selected models. The research outcomes will also assist policymakers in developing strategies and policies for the future climate of central India with the help of more precise projected climatic data.

Traditional Rainwater Management (Haveli cultivation) for Building System Level Resilience in a Fragile Ecosystem of Bundelkhand Region, Central India

This article presents the evidence on how the traditional rainwater management system (haveli system) has contributed toward rehabilitating degraded landscapes and changing them into a productive form in Bundelkhand region of Central India. The haveli system was the lifeline of the region for water security for the last 300 years. Farmers (~1–5%) situated at the upstream of the landscape were harvesting surface runoff in their fields during monsoon by constructing earthen embankments along with provision to drain out water after receding of the monsoon. Farmers traditionally cultivated only during the post-monsoon period, using residual soil moisture along with supplemental irrigation from shallow dug wells. However, this system became defunct due to apathy and poor maintenance. The traditional design of the havelis were also often malfunctioning due to new rainfall patterns and storm events. Farmers are facing new need for haveli rejuvenation and the traditional design and knowledge calls for new innovations, particularly from research and external expertise. In this context, ICRISAT and consortium partners have introduced an innovative approach for haveli rejuvenation by constructing masonry core wall along with outlet at a suitable location. Totally 40 haveli structures were constructed between 2010 and 2021 across seven districts of Bundelkhand region. One of the pilot sites (i.e., Parasai-Sindh) was intensively monitored in order to capture the landscape hydrology, change in land use, cropping intensity and crop productivity, between 2011 and 2017. Out of 750 mm rainfall received during July and September, generated surface runoff is about 135 mm (18% of rainfall) on average. However, rainfall below 450 mm (dry years) rarely generates surplus water as most of the rainfall received in such years are absorbed within the vadose zone, whereas, wet years with over 900 mm rainfall, generate runoff of about 250–300 mm (~30–35%). Rejuvenation of the haveli system created an opportunity to harvest surface runoff within farmers' fields which helped to improve groundwater levels in shallow dug wells (additionally by 2–5 m hydraulic head) which remained available during the following years. This has increased cropping intensity—by converting about 20% of permanent fallow lands into productive agriculture lands—and ensured irrigation availability especially during the critical crop growth stage. This enhanced land and water use efficiency of the system and increased household net income by two to three folds as compared to the baseline status. This article further establishes the link between landscape rejuvenation through haveli system, groundwater resource availability, production system and household income in the fragile ecosystem of Central India. The results are helpful for various stakeholders so that they can take informed decisions on sustainable natural resource management.

Impact of Economic Assessment of Crop Production along with Agroforestry Adoption in Bundelkhand Region

Background: Bundelkhand region is far behind in the availability of soil and water both natural resources due to erratic rainfall and hard rock terrains (Tyagi, 1997). Conservation of such type of natural resources for livelihood security with a strong commitment would be the foremost challenge of the 21st century. The home of over 15.62 million humans and 8.36 million livestock, suffers from water scarcity, natural resource degradation, low crop productivity (1-1.5 Mg/ha), low rainwater use efficiency (35-45%), poor soil fertility, frequent droughts, poor irrigation facilities, inadequate vegetation cover and frequent crop failure resulting in scarcity of food, fodder and fuel (Palsaniya et al. 2008). Under such circumstances, the goal of doubling farmer’s income by the year 2022 has been dubbed as impossible and unrealistic by some experts (Gulati and Saini, 2016). Hence, this study was conducted to assess the impact of agroforestry based crop production for provide an economic feasibility as well as perfect diet. Methods: The study was conducted at Garhkundar-Dabar (GKD) watershed located between 78° 52' 39" to 78° 54' 44" E longitude and 25° 26' 23" to 25° 28' 32" N latitude with an altitude varying from 208 to 285 m above mean sea level in Bundelkhand region of central India. The net return was calculated by subtracting the cost of cultivation incurred from sowing to harvesting, for each crop from the gross return and then benefit-cost ratio was estimated by dividing the net returns with cost of cultivation. Result: The study has revealed that after watershed interventions and agroforestry based Crop cultivation, the expenses on irrigation and labour will decrease, crop productivity will improve as well as benefit-cost ratio.

Transforming livestock productivity through watershed interventions: A case study of Parasai-Sindh watershed in Bundelkhand region of Central India

CONTEXTGlobal experiences reveal the positive impact of watershed-based interventions in improving livelihoods and environmental security. In the drylands, increasing forage resources and improving livestock productivity is a critical challenge. OBJECTIVESThe overarching aim of this paper is to analyse the impact of watershed-based interventions on livestock population, productivity, fodder resources, and biomass availability. The paper describes the interrelationship between land, water, crop, and livestock and how the gap in forage deficit can be bridged through a range of watershed interventions. METHODSThe study was undertaken in the Parasai-Sindh watershed of Central India between 2011 and 2016. A 300-year-old defunct haveli (a traditional rainwater harvesting structure) was renovated and nine check dams along the drainage line were constructed. Nearly 25,000 running-meters of field bunds were constructed. Large fields (2-3 ha) were divided into relatively smaller plots (0.3–0.5 ha) to reduce runoff velocity. The impact of watershed interventions on water availability, livestock productivity, forage yield, and income was studied through hydrological monitoring, primary household survey and principal component analysis (PCA) biplot and hierarchical clustering. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSThe watershed interventions enhanced groundwater availability leading to greater fodder availability, 22% increase in livestock population (ACU) and a 120% increase in milk production over a period of five years. The bovine population recorded a surge of 193% (cattle) and 32% (buffalo) over this period. Mean dry matter (DM, fodder) availability also increased from 10 t/household/year to 16.7 t/household/year owing to improved water availability. Groundnut (rainy season) and wheat (post rainy season) contributed significantly as forage resources. There was an annual forage demand of 5560 t DM for a livestock population of 2175 ACU in 2011 and of 6770 t DM for a livestock population of 2650 ACU in 2016. Annual forage biomass availability was estimated at 4219 t DM in 2011 and 6977 t DM in 2016. There was a deficit of 1341 t DM (24%) in 2011 which turned into a 3% surplus of 210 t DM in 2016 through watershed-based interventions. With increased cropping intensity and milk production, average annual household income increased from US$ 1325 to US$ 2430 over the five-year period. SIGNIFICANCEThis case study clearly illustrates the impact of watershed-based interventions on livestock population, productivity, forage resources, and biomass availability to bridge the gap in forage deficit. Its findings serve as a guide to widely scale up watershed-based interventions for improved water and biomass availability, and livestock productivity in semi-arid and dryland regions.

Farmers' Perception, Adaptation Strategies, their Determinants and Barriers to Climate Change in the Bundelkhand Region of Central India

This study is based on a farm house hold survey (818 households) collected from 4 districts of drought prone region of central India and examines that how farmers perceive the climate change and adaptation strategies adopted over the past few decades. Nearly, 80.9%, 93.6% and 95.2% farmers’ perceived that the average temperature has increased, rainfall has decreased and occurrence of drought is more frequent, respectively during last 25–30 years. A significant decreasing trend was observed in annual rainfall at all the studied locations with a rate of 2.1 to 5.8 mm year–1. In most of the locations both maximum and minimum temperature showed an increasing trend during winter season (July-October) in the range of 0.8 to 1.2 and 0.4–1.5ºC per 100 year, respectively. However, only two locations viz., Jhansi and Banda district showed increasing trend in maximum temperature in the range of 0.8 to 2.3oC per hundred years during rainy season. This study revealed that the perceptions of rural farmers on climate change and variability are consistent with the climate trend analysis. Econometric model suggested a positive influence of age, agriculture experience, educational qualification, size of land holding, adequate access to credit facility and crop insurance, intermittent dry spell and adequate extension services on climate change perceptions and adaptation. The results further revealed that 69.8% respondent have implemented adaptation measures in response to dry spell. Furthermore, analysis showed that agriculture experience, educational qualification and intermittent dry spell and access to extension services are the key factors for adoption of various adaptation strategies particularly, irrigations scheduling, use of high yielding improved varieties, pesticides and change of planting date. Inadequate availability of irrigation resources and frequent drought as well as intermittent dry spells were considered as the most critical barriers for adaptation measures to climate change by farmers.

Detection of annual and seasonal temperature variability and change using non-parametric test- A case study of Bundelkhand region of central India

Consequences of global warming and climate change are major threat to humans and their socio-economic activities. Agriculture of Bundelkhand region is supposed to be more vulnerable due to emerging scenario of climate change and poor socio-economic status of farming community. Many studies carried out elsewhere have shown evidence of regional temperature variability along with global climate changes. This study focuses on the temporal variability and trend in annual and seasonal temperature (1901-2012) at six locations of Bundelkhand region. The results of the analysis reveal that the annual maximum (TMax) and minimum (TMin) temperature has significantly increasing trend in all the locations in the range of 0.5 to 2.0oC 100 year-1 and 0.5 to 1.1 oC 100 year-1, respectively. Seasonal analysis revealed warming trend in both TMax (0.6-2.6oC100 year-1) and TMin (0.9 to 2.3 oC 100 year-1) during post-monsoon and winter season in all the locations. Majority of the locations showed cooling trend (0.3-1.0 oC 100 year-1), in the mean maximum and minimum temperature during monsoon season except at two locations i.e Jhansi and Banda. However, a significant positive trends (2.9 oC) in the TMin was found for the period of hundred years at Banda district during monsoon season.

Results of century analysis of rainfall and temperature trends and its impact on agriculture production in Bundelkhand region of Central India

Results of century analysis of rainfall and temperature trends and its impact on agriculture production in Bundelkhand region of Central India

Land Use Effect on Soil Organic Carbon Stocks, Microbial Biomass and Basal Respiration in Bundelkhand Region of Central India

Land Use Effect on Soil Organic Carbon Stocks, Microbial Biomass and Basal Respiration in Bundelkhand Region of Central India

Can forage technologies transform Indian livestock sector?: Evidences from smallholder dairy farmers in Bundelkhand region of central India

The study has analysed the factors affecting adoption of improved forage technologies and its impact on milk yield and feed sufficiency in Bundelkhand region. We used propensity score matching (PSM) technique on cross-sectional data collected from 400 dairy farmers for impact evaluation and also conducted sensitivity analysis to examine the effect of uncontrolled confounders on the estimands. Our findings suggest that, education status, standard livestock unit, animal breed type, off-farm income activities, farm size and access to training, credit and market significantly influence adoption of improved forage technologies and practices. Further the adoption led to a significant increase in annual milk production (over 950 litres) and daily milk yield (1.15 to 2.04 litres) and also reduced time spent in feeding by around 2 hours during zaid season and around an hour during kharif season.

Pattern and implications of labour migration on technical efficiency of farm households: A study in Bundelkhand region of central India

Labour migration and remittance influence resource use efficiency in agriculture. The present study evaluates the impact of labour migration on crop productivity and technical efficiency in the Bundelkhand region of central India. The study is based on a primary survey of 240 farm households, comprising 120 migrant and 120 non-migrant households during 2016-17.The average yield of selected crops was higher in non-migrant households than that of migrant households. However, there was no variation in the input use intensity between the two categories.Factors such as education, farming experience, and access to extension services significantly reduced technical inefficiency for migrant households.In addition to these factors, access to irrigation significantly reduced technical inefficiency for non-migrant households. Development of irrigation infrastructure and strengthening extension linkage can enhance crop productivity and check distress migration in the Bundelkhand region.

Fine Roots Dynamics and Biomass of Phyllanthus Emblica-Based Agroforestry System in Bundelkhand Region of Central India

Fine Roots Dynamics and Biomass of Phyllanthus Emblica-Based Agroforestry System in Bundelkhand Region of Central India

Assessment of the performance of CMIP5 and CORDEX-SA models over the drought-prone Bundelkhand region, India

Abstract The present study evaluates the reliability of the latest generation five best general circulation models (GCMs) under the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) and their corresponding regional climate models (RCMs) of Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment (CORDEX) for the Bundelkhand region in central India. The study is performed on a microscale due to frequent drought events and more climate susceptibility in the study region. Observed daily precipitation data of 35 years (1971–2005) from the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) have been chosen to check the performance of the models. Bilinear interpolation has been adopted to prepare all the data to obtain them on a common grid platform at a half-degree (0.5° × 0.5°) resolution. The data of the models have been bias-corrected using quantile mapping. Uncertainty of the models has been assessed using Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE), coefficient of determination (r2) and a modified method known as skill score (SS). The study concluded that the bias-corrected GCMs played a better role than the CORDEX RCMs for the Bundelkhand region. Earth System Model, ESM-2M of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) has shown better accuracy than all the CORDEX RCMs and their driving GCMs for the study region.

Quantitative Morphometric and Morphotectonic Analysis of Pahuj Catchment Basin, Central India

In the present work, the morphometric and morphotectonic analysis of the Pahuj basin catchment of the Bundelkhand region of Central India was carried by using remote sensing and GIS techniques. The drainage map, Digital Elevation Model (DEM), density, contour, aspect, and other thematic maps were extracted from ASTER-DEM (30m resolution) data by using geographical information system (GIS) tool. Five order streams have been validated in the study area and an inverse relationship between the stream order and stream number has been established. The high mean bifurcation ratio (Rb=5.12) indicates that the drainage pattern is controlled by geological structures in the impermeable granitic terrain. The stream frequency (2.69) is indicative of the increment of stream population for drainage density. Contrary to this the drainage density (2.08) is suggestive of low to moderate infiltration rate and is showing the thin vegetal cover on the impermeable rocky terrain. The elongation ratio (0.61) and form factor (0.29) infer that the catchment basin is elongated and shows low peak flows. The value of ruggedness and Melton ruggedness number implies that the basin is moderately rugged and debris watershed and is less susceptible to soil erosion. The drainage pattern of basin catchment flowing in diverse lithological and structural terrain (Archean and Palaeoproterozoic age) is exhibiting less influence of active tectonics. The NW-SE, E-W and NNE-SSW trending lineaments resembling the orientation of lower-order streams are suggestive of structural control. The NE-SW trending high order streams flowing in an elongated Pahuj basin catchment and coinciding with the orientation of major NE-SW lineaments are indicative of major tectonic control.

Building climate resilience in degraded agricultural landscapes through water management: A case study of Bundelkhand region, Central India

Rainfall variability and water scarcity continue to hamper the food and income security of smallholder farming systems in poverty-affected regions. Innovations in soil and water management, especially in the drylands, are critical for meeting food security and water productivity targets of Agenda 2030. This study analyzes how rainfed agriculture can be intensified with marginal impact on the landscape water balance. The impact of rainwater harvesting structures on landscape hydrology and associated agricultural services was analyzed in the semi-arid Jhansi district of Bundelkhand region in central India. The Parasai-Sindh pilot watershed was subjected to a 5-year (2012–2016) monitoring of rainfed system improvements in water availability and crop intensification due to surface water storage (haveli system), check dams, and field infiltration structures. Hydrological processes were monitored intensively to analyze the landscape’s water balance components. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) structures altered the landscape’s hydrology, limiting average surface runoff from 250 mm/year to 150 mm/year over the study period. Groundwater levels increased by 2–5 m (m), alleviating water scarcity issues of the communities in recurring dry years. Nearly 20% of fallow lands were brought under cultivation. Crop yields increased by 10–70% and average household income increased from US$ 960/year to US$ 2700/year compared to that in the non-intervention landscape. The combined soil–water–vegetation efforts strengthened water resilience and environmental systems in agricultural landscape.