Buddhist Schools Research Articles

Exploring Individualisation Processes in Western Buddhism: A Multi-thematic Analysis of Interviews with English and Italian Practitioners

Abstract Amongst the studies concerning Buddhism in the West, until now few have attempted to make an empirically based comparison between Buddhist practitioners from countries with different socio-religious backgrounds. This paper aims to contribute to filling this gap by analysing thirty multi-thematic qualitative interviews with lay practitioners connected in a variety of modalities to diverse Buddhist groups from England and Italy. The theoretical framework combines the concepts of individualisation, subjectivisation and bricolage to analyse the range of Buddhist interpretations and self-descriptions. The main research questions are: 1. What are the differences and affinities between practitioners of different nationalities belonging to diverse Buddhist traditions? 2. What is gained by applying the analytical framework? The paper argues that in most cases the decisive element is not nationality, but rather the connection with a specific Buddhist school. Furthermore, practitioners shape and at times challenge the ongoing processes examined in the theoretical framework.

Chinese Chan Buddhism and the Agrarian Aesthetic in the Garden

As the most important Buddhist school in the history of Chinese Buddhism, the philosophy of Chan Buddhism and its agricultural Chan practice have had a profound influence on the lives of the literati and scholars. Both historically and logically, the term “Chan Dharma 禪法” is extremely rich in connotations. The so-called “agricultural Chan 農禪” is a transformation of Chinese farming culture into the “Chan practice” by practising meditation through farming activities. The “garden farming 園耕” refers to the farming activities of the literati and scholars in the gardens, which were driven by the style of agricultural Chan. Under the influence of agricultural Chan, “garden farming” took on a new spiritual attitude towards crops and created a natural aesthetic realm of life in the act of farming. This article consists of three main sections. I start with an introduction to the religious thoughts and practices of Chan Buddhism, pointing out that the underlying colour of Chan Buddhism is the aesthetics of life, while gradually evoking its special practice of Chan. The second section discusses the concept of agricultural Chan and farming activities in gardens, to figure out the characteristics of agricultural Chan and how farming activities in gardens are carried out. In the third section, I argue for the beauty of farming in gardens, pointing out the essence of the beauty in garden farming and what aesthetic possibilities the act of farming in gardens may embody.

The Concealed Influence of Custom: Hume’s “Treatise” from the Inside Out by Jay L. Garfield

Reviewed by: The Concealed Influence of Custom: Hume’s “Treatise” from the Inside Out by Jay L. Garfield John Christian Laursen Jay L. Garfield. The Concealed Influence of Custom: Hume’s “Treatise” from the Inside Out. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019. Pp. 302. Hardback. ISBN: 978-0-19-093340-1, $82. This book has at least two original and great merits. One is that it is one of the first in the Hume literature to be truly global. The other is that it gives custom and habit the place they deserve in Hume’s philosophy. Concerning the first of these, I think it would be widely admitted that most of the study of Western philosophy is done in blissful ignorance of non-Western philosophy. We follow what our thinkers are doing, and pay little or no attention to the rest of the world. In contrast, this book peppers the footnotes, and even some of the text, with comparisons to Buddhist schools and figures such as Madhyamaka, Candrakirti, Nagarjuna, and the like. We are not used to the idea that Western philosophers may have drawn some of their ideas from non-Western philosophy, although we have long known that Pyrrho traveled to India and may have taken ideas from the gymnosophists, and that later philosophers like Bayle and Leibniz were very interested in Chinese ideas. In Hume’s case, it is possible that there was some influence through Pyrrho and his followers, or that these were simply parallel developments. The latter are still of philosophical interest because they show how similar philosophies can develop from different roots. Of course, one of the reasons that most of us cannot compare a figure like Hume to Indian or Chinese philosophy is that we do not know the languages and have not been trained in those areas. In this case, Jay Garfield is the author of many works on Indian philosophy, including Engaging Buddhism: Why it Matters to Philosophy (2015), so he has authority in the matter. A work like this, drawing attention to many similarities and parallels in philosophy, could be followed up by some methodological work on how to compare philosophies from such different intellectual traditions. What do the parallels mean? Are there any deeper or wider conclusions that we can make about parallels that appear in very different philosophical traditions? Is convergence of ideas a confidence builder in their solidity and truth, or rather a reminder of common human tendencies to fallacy? If philosophy is ever going to join the ranks of truly global human enterprises, it will have to ask and answer these questions about far-flung philosophical traditions. The main argument of this book is that Hume is best understood as a Pyrrhonian philosopher who maintains that the foundations of our knowledge, ethics, and political practices may be found only in custom and habit. Book 2 of Hume’s Treatise is the key, providing a social account of the passions and our constructions of ourselves. “Custom is essential to the story,” the author writes (82). Nature makes [End Page 179] us develop customs together that start from passions and sympathy, and are drawn together by the imagination. On the basis of these social constructions of most elements of our lives, by the end of the book, Garfield is talking about Hume’s place in the “communitarian tradition” (279–80). If Book 2 is read before Book 1, one will realize that what Hume says about reason and ontology in Book 1 is rooted in his theory of the passions in Book 2, and thus always social. What Hume is doing is more like philosophical psychology (or the psychology of philosophy?) than epistemology, metaphysics, or moral philosophy, according to Garfield. Hume is asking why we believe what we believe in epistemology, metaphysics, and moral philosophy, not proving that any of these beliefs are true. Taking the title of Hume’s Treatise seriously, it is a book about human nature, not about Hume’s understanding of those philosophical subfields. Hume’s work is more descriptive than prescriptive. We can learn from it how we live, not how we should live, which is a matter for the development of customs over time...

A Study of Middle Age Sanskrit Poṣadha Palm-leaf Manual

The Poṣadha, or observing of eight Buddhist precepts by lay and monastic people in Buddhism starts inthe lifetime of Buddha. With the growth of time, many Buddhist sects developed and they developed their Poṣadha methods (I.-Tsing, 1896). Among them is the tradition of the Sanskrit Mahayana monks. This article is about a palm-leaf manuscript [RAS Hudgson MS 70] from the Hudgson collection which is now in the South Asian society collection. This Poṣadha manual written by a novice has great significance as it takes us back to the time when the monks following Sanskrit tradition were still functioning. Interestingly this Poṣadha text is based largely on the Mahayana context and has very little Sravakayana influence. Directions for forming puṣpamaṇḍala has significant difference which hasn't been revealed before. This Vrata manual can be looked at as the initial ritualistic development of a now surviving Sanskrit Buddhism, this is Newar Buddhism.

엘라파트라 용왕의 수수께끼

After the historical Buddha passed away, his disciples tried to record the life of the Buddha in various forms, and it became a culture that persisted throughout the history of Buddhism. In the Vinaya of some Buddhist schools, early works to compose a biography of the Buddha can be found. Representatively, the Mahāvagga belonging to the Vinaya of Theravāda or Sthaviravāda tradition, 『彌沙塞部和醯五分律』(T1421), which is a Chinese translation of the Mahīśāsaka-vinaya, and 『四分律』(T1428), which is a Chinese translation of the Dharmaguptaka-vinaya, show results of such attempts in common. These tell the stories, from the Buddha’s enlightenment of Buddha to the conversion of Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana. Among these three versions, there are unique stories found only in the biography of Buddha in the Mahīśāsaka-vinaya and Dharmaguptaka-vinaya. They are episodes in which Elāpattra (伊羅鉢怛羅), the king of the Nāgas (Nāgarājan) issues riddles. Over time, these stories were tranformed in the Mūlasarvāstivādavinayakṣudravastu (『根本說一切有部毘奈耶雜事』, T1451), and recreated as more expanded stories in the Mahabastu and the Abhiniṣkramaṇasūtra (『佛本行集經』, T190). Besides, another Elāpattra narrative is introduced in the Dhammapada Aṭṭhakathā of Buddhagosa on the Dhammpada 182. In these episodes, Elāpattra asks people riddles to find the Buddha, and eventually meets the Buddha. This article aims to compare and analyze the various versions of the episode of Elāpattra and to clarify their significance. In addition to that, I intend to discover the meaning of the questions and answers, and show that Buddha biographies and narratives can be provide clues to idetify the history of Buddhism.

A Morphological Study of the Ancient Buddhist Monasteries of Bengal

Vajrayana, or Bengali Buddhism, was a significant derivation from traditional Buddhist schools of ancient India. This Buddhist school was erected in ancient Bengal, adopting the prevailing esoteric tantric practices, and reigned every corner of Bengal from around the 7th to the 13th century. This morphological research focuses on the spatial layout of five Bengal Buddhist monasteries constructed between the 5th and 12th centuries and tries to find the underlying pattern of evolution through the lens of the philosophical development of Buddhism in Bengal. The findings show a significant shift in the morphological character of the Bengal Buddhist monastery after the 8th century ad. The introduction and growth of tantra-oriented Buddhist schools, primarily the Vajrayana school, played a vital role in the spatial evolution and transformation of the Buddhist monasteries of Bengal. This study tries to unveil how religion's intrinsic and extrinsic forces shaped forms and spatial patterns of Buddhist architecture in Ancient Bengal.

Interactions between Rivals: The Christian Mission and Buddhist Sects in Japan (c. 1549–c. 1647) ed. by Alexandra Curvelo and Angelo Cattaneo (review)

Interactions between Rivals: The Christian Mission and Buddhist Sects in Japan (c. 1549–c. 1647) ed. by Alexandra Curvelo and Angelo Cattaneo (review)

God and the World's Arrangement: Readings from Vedānta and Nyāya Philosophy of Religion by Nirmalya Guha, Matthew Dasti, and Stephen Phillips

Reviewed by: God and the World's Arrangement: Readings from Vedānta and Nyāya Philosophy of Religion by Nirmalya Guha, Matthew Dasti, and Stephen Phillips Swami Narasimhananda (bio) God and the World's Arrangement: Readings from Vedānta and Nyāya Philosophy of Religion. Translated, with Introduction and Explanatory Notes, by Nirmalya Guha, Matthew Dasti, and Stephen Phillips. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2021. Pp. xx + 91. Paperback $19.00, isbn 978-1-62466-957-6. The scarcity of accessible English translations of Sanskrit texts that retain the philosophical rigor of the original has been a great challenge in Indian philosophy. God and the World's Arrangement, a translation with introduction and explanatory notes by Nirmalya Guha, Matthew Dasti, and Stephen Phillips, is an example of how this scarcity could be addressed without straying away from present-day idioms and context. This book discusses the perspectives on God and the arrangement of the world according to Nyāya, Vedānta, Mīmāṃsā, and Buddhist philosophies. This book is divided into two parts, followed by two appendices, and a bibliography. Each part has study questions at the end and there is an impressive reading list. The first part is a translation and analysis of Śaṅkara's theistic argument in his commentary on the Brahma-sūtra 2.2.1–10. The translators also include the subcommentary by Vācaspati Miśra. The second part contains the translation and analysis of Vācaspati Miśra's theistic argument in his commentary on the Nyāya-sūtra 4.1.19–21. All translations are followed by explanations that elaborate the contexts of the arguments. The translations in this book are elegant and use modern English idioms. The seeds of this book were sown by a guest lecture by Nirmalya Guha to a philosophy course at the University of Texas at Austin. The other two authors joined hands with Guha and worked on texts from Sāṃkhya, Nyāya, Vedānta, and Buddhist schools of thought. Scholars around the world are now interested in having a pan-global view of philosophy. However, such an understanding requires an informed engagement with the various contexts and mores of thought. This deceptively slim volume addresses this problem by succinctly providing the required background context and clarifying many commonly held misconceptions about Indian philosophy, particularly Advaita Vedānta. For a long time, there have not been many serious readings of Advaita Vedānta texts. This book comes as a relief and explains the basic concepts of Advaita Vedānta with readings from relevant portions of texts like the Brahma-sūtra. This book is a step to fill the gap [End Page 1] of texts that properly voice the perspectives of scholars from within the traditions following Advaita Vedānta. It is heartening to read a contemporary text that acknowledges the unbiased masterly exegetical work of Vācaspati Miśra that earned him the epithet sarva-tantra-svatantra, "one who is equally proficient in all the disciplines of knowledge." The translators and editors of this book have a noble goal of "coupling Vācaspati's works on Vedānta and on Nyāya" to make "it possible for a wide swath of his work to be pondered, little of which is currently accessible despite Vācaspati's importance for the whole of classical Indian philosophical thought" (p. xi). The editors lose no time in clarifying the approach of the texts explained in the book from Vedānta and Nyāya philosophies. They explain in some detail one of the means of knowledge, pramāṇa s, used by the Indian philosophies that adhere to the Vedās, the means of anumāṇa or inference. An interesting aspect of this book is the contemporary examples that the translators give, like those of a politician and automobile manufacturers. For instance, the translators explain different ways in which arguments given through an example can fail. The translators explain the error of an example not having the property to be proved in this manner: Yet another type of failure occurs when the property to be proved is not actually present in the example. Should one argue that "People who purchase Japanese vehicles...

Компаративный анализ философии дзэн: Риндзай и Сото

The practical methods of studying Zen, known as ‘pure zazen’ and the ‘koan method’ of the Buddhist schools of Rinzai and Soto are subjected to comparative analysis. This study focuses on the comprehension of Zen philosophy, and also analyzes the basic attitudes regarding the difference from the old Buddhist schools in Japan: practical activity, self-improvememt and indifference to death come first, as well as new aesthetic norms and ideals. Simplicity, the absence of any authority, the absence of rituals and anti-intellectualism corresponded to the spirit of the era when the once unshakable moral values were collapsing. Comparing the two Buddhist schools, the authors of the article note that the distinguishing feature of Soto, founded in Japan by Dogen, is absolute immersion in the meditative practice of ‘Silent illumination of Zen’ (黙想 mokuso), which outlines the path to enlightenment through sitting meditation. At the same time the emphasis is placed on the fact that this is a complex and not fast process of passing through certain stages in comprehending the teaching. Rinzai Zen in Japan is most associated with learning through koan work, and the origin of this practice dates back to master Linji from the time of the Song dynasty, namely Daie Soko, who collected and arranged all the major koans in a specific order for ease of use. But the very practice of comprehending the teaching is distinguished by its rather harsh and cruel methods, since the teachers considered it necessary to tear the student out of everyday life and the fastest way is to hit or to shout at a person. It was this philosophical practice of Rinzai Zen that was spread in Japan by Eisai. As a result of the study, the authors came to the conclusion that the masters of the Rinzai school proclaim the importance of ‘sudden enlightenment’, and the masters of the Soto school teach to follow the path of ‘progressive enlightenment’, and thus Soto and Rinzai become Zen schools that use opposite methods to achieve insight.

A Study of Chinese Commentaries on the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment

The Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment, also known as Yuanjuejing 圓覺經 or, in full, Dafang guangyuanjue xiuduoluo liaoyijing 大方廣圓覺修多羅了義經, is a mindfulness meditation sutra with a particularly high reputation that has been the subject of a great deal of annotations and commentaries throughout the history of East Asian Buddhism. However, hitherto, the literature has not systematically organized and studied these annotations and commentaries. The aim of this paper is to organize the Chinese commentaries on this sutra from the 8th to the 17th centuries systematically and tointroduce the different situations by the commentaries produced by different schools of Buddhism. Briefly, these works mainly include the commentaries by Weique 惟愨, Wushi 悟實, Jianzhi 堅志, Daoquan 道詮, and Tsung-mi 宗密 during the Tang Dynasty (618–907); the commentaries of the Huayan 華嚴宗, Tiantai 天臺宗, and Chan 禪宗 schools during the Song Dynasty (960–1279); and the literal interpretations and collected commentaries produced during the Ming and Qing Dynasties (1368–1912).

Aspects of Medieval Japanese Religion

The focus of this Special Issue is on medieval Japanese religion. Although Kamakura “new” Buddhist schools are usually taken as unquestioned landmarks of the medieval religious landscape, it is necessary to add complexity to this static picture in order to grasp the dynamic and hybrid character of the religious practices and theories that were produced during this historical period. This Special Issue will shed light on the diversity of medieval Japanese religion by adopting a wide range of analytical approaches, encompassing various fields of knowledge such as history, philosophy, materiality, literature, medical studies, and body theories. Its purpose is to expand the interpretative boundaries of medieval Japanese religion beyond Buddhism by emphasizing the importance of mountain asceticism (Shugendō), Yin and Yang (Onmyōdō) rituals, medical and soteriological practices, combinatory paradigms between local gods and Buddhist deities (medieval Shintō), hagiographies, religious cartography, conflations between performative arts and medieval Shintō mythologies, and material culture. This issue will foster scholarly comprehension of medieval Japanese religion as a growing network of heterogeneous religious traditions in permanent dialogue and reciprocal transformation. While there is a moderate amount of works that address some of the aspects described above, there is yet no publication attempting to embrace all these interrelated elements within a single volume. The present issue will attempt to make up for this lack. At the same time, it will provide a crucial contribution to the broad field of premodern Japanese religions, demonstrating the inadequacy of a rigid interpretative approach based on sectarian divisions and doctrinal separation. Our project underlines the hermeneutical importance of developing a polyphonic vision of the multifarious reality that lies at the core of medieval Japanese religion.

Exploring a counselling frame based on buddhist ontological soteriology, rooted in the four noble truths

ABSTRACT This study proposes a counselling frame based on Buddhist ontological soteriology, rooted in the Four Noble Truths, derived from related doctrines in early Buddhism and the Yogācāra school of Buddhism. The frame is based on the main Buddhist doctrine on suffering that the Buddha emphasized– helping people in need to comprehend the nature of the person and personal identity, psychological mechanisms of dysfunction, a path to resolution, and employing skilful-meansto resolution– by clearly providing them with descriptive information and aguide on how to practice contemplation based on the presented information. The counselling frame suggested in the study aims to explore the pilot idea of applying Buddhist primary doctrines to suffering and its resolution for both the professionals and the clients.

The Awakening of Faith and New Confucian Philosophy ed. by John Makeham

Reviewed by: The Awakening of Faith and New Confucian Philosophy ed. by John Makeham King Pong Chiu (bio) The Awakening of Faith and New Confucian Philosophy. Edited by John Makeham. Boston: Brill, 2021. Pp. x + 503. Paperback $232.00, ISBN 978-90-04-47123-8. The idea that Buddhism played a key role in the development of New Confucianism has long prevailed in academia, but it is not until recent years that such an idea has been critically studied through a series of monographs, mainly published by Brill. This book is one of the excellent works concerning such an important topic. Unlike other works which focus on the possible influence of specific Buddhist schools on individual New Confucian thinkers, The Awakening of Faith and New Confucian Philosophy stresses the relationship between a specific Buddhist 'classic,' the Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith or Dasheng qixin lun 大乘起信論, and New Confucianism as a whole. This makes for a very in-depth discussion. Including the introduction, there are eleven essays in this edited volume. John Makeham provides a clear introduction to the book, presenting the background and the characteristics of the Treatise, its relationship with Indian Buddhist thought, and that of Yogācāra in particular, as well as with the New Confucian thinkers covered in the book. As Makeham correctly states, "the main conceptual model that New Confucian philosophers adapted from the Treatise and repurposed is the 'one mind, two gateways' model" (p. 46). This highlights the main argument advanced by the book. The following chapters, to different extents, address this issue from different perspectives. In the next two essays, John Jorgensen examines the controversy over the Treatise within Buddhist circles in Republican China, demonstrating that there was no consensus about the identity of the Treatise as a Buddhist text even among Buddhist scholars. Below, I argue that this point is essential to our understanding of the role the Treatise, and even Buddhism more generally, played in New Confucianism. The following seven essays are about the appropriations of the Treatise by individual New Confucian thinkers such as Xiong Shili 熊十力, Ma Yifu 馬一浮, Tang Junyi 唐君毅, and Mou Zongsan 牟宗三. Here, I do not go into details about the arguments and conclusions of these essays one by one, but stress that all discussions develop, implicitly or explicitly, the idea that if New Confucianism was influenced by the Treatise, it was affected by its notion of the 'one mind, two gateways' [End Page 1] model and the philosophical ideas implied by it, such as the peculiar ti-yong 體用 paradigm of the Treatise. In the final essay, Lin Chen-kuo puts the discussion into the broader context of East Asian Buddhism, indicating that the main theme of the debate over the relationship between the Treatise and New Confucianism is not the 'one mind, two gateways' model and its ti-yong paradigm, but the characteristics of the mind and the nature of the ti-yong view that the Treatise may imply. In Lin's view, it is the 'subjectivity' laid in the Treatise that makes the text controversial (pp. 462–466) and it is also thanks to the ambiguity of this 'subjectivity' that the Treatise could serve as a bridge between Buddhism and Confucianism, and even between Chinese and Western philosophies (pp. 483–484). Lin's essay helps make clear the potential role played by the Treatise in New Confucianism as, no matter how important the Treatise appears to be, its role is restricted to a means and not an end. This further implies that there may be other Buddhist elements that play a role in New Confucianism aside from those which the Treatise provides. The book has at least two advantages. First, it provides a complete survey of the position of the Treatise in Buddhism. Second, it offers a thorough evaluation of the role the Treatise may have played in New Confucianism. This part of the discussion is particularly valuable, as it is a topic that lacks systematic investigation in present-day academia. For the first point, the position of the Treatise in Buddhism is highly controversial, not only because it is widely considered to have been written in China and not India, but also because of...

Doctrines of Different Philosophical Schools Regarding the Theory of Cause & Effect and Their Validation in Light of Charaka Samhita

Right from the inception of Ayurveda, through its development across the ages, the fundamental principles of Ayurveda have been influenced and enriched by the thoughts and logics from different Indian philosophical schools. Among the many branches of Indian philosophical schools, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Vedanta and certain Buddhist schools had a great influence in building up the basic fundamental principles of Ayurveda. The theory of causality behind every action i.e. Karya Karana Vada has been adopted by the majority of Indian philosophical schools with their own unique explanation, which gives the distinct identity to each of the doctrines related to the theory of cause and effect. Charaka Samhita, one of the most fundamental treatise of Ayurveda has adopted many of them and explains different biological as well as universal phenomenon on the basis of these theories. A number of doctrines and concepts those are described both in different philosophical schools and Charaka Samhita, among which Paramanu Vada (doctrine of atom), Pilu Paka Vada (doctrine of molecular change), Pithara Paka Vada (doctrine of physical change), Sat Karya Vada (doctrine of causation), Asat Karya Vada (doctrine of non - existence), Arambhavada (doctrine of commencement), Parinama Vada (doctrine of transformation), Vivarta Vada (doctrine of appearances), Kshanabhangura Vada (doctrine of momentariness), and Swabhavoparama Vada (doctrine of self-destruction) are some of the theories which are discussed in this present study with descriptions & examples available in Charaka Samhita.

The Impact of Southern Song Buddhism on the Japanese Pure Land Movement in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries: Shinran’s Thought in the Context of Sino-Japanese Buddhist Exchange

This article discusses how Southern Song Buddhism, which flourished in the Taizhou 台州, Hangzhou 杭州 and Ningbo 寧波 area, positively impacted the transformational movement of Japanese Pure Land Buddhism in the late twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Recently, several excellent academic books were published in Japan that address the development of Buddhist thought during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907-960) and Song periods (960-1279) and Sino-Japanese Buddhist exchange from the perspective of cultural and textual relationships across East Asian during this era. These studies reveal the trans-sectarian and trans-national characteristics of Sino-Japanese Buddhist exchange during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. These studies demonstrate not only cutting-edge methodological approaches by modern scholars, but also why comprehensive research of and knowledge about transformational Japanese Buddhist movements in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries is necessary for understanding the history of the development of Chinese and Japanese Buddhism.<BR> In this article, I overview the impact of Southern Song Buddhism on the development of Japanese Buddhism, especially the transformational movement of Japanese Pure Land Buddhism in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries focusing on Shinran 親鸞 (1173-1263), who is the founder of Jōdo Shinshū or Shin Buddhist sect. He was one of the main figures of the transform movement of Japanese Pure Land in the thirteenth century. Shinran is also recognized as a seminal, sophisticated religious thinker in Japanese Buddhism, and he is remembered in modern times for his provocative and insightful writings. Here, I examine his main work, the Ken Jōdoshinjitsu Kyōgyōshō monrui 顕浄土真実教行証文類 (Collected Passages Revealing the True Teaching, Practice, and Realization; hereafter The True Teaching, Practice, and Realization) and analyze how Song-dynasty Buddhist texts, especially written by masters in the Hangzhou area brought back to Japan during this time, greatly impacted Shinran’s innovative and transformational thought.

Design of Non-Contact Temperature Meter and Automatic Berrier Based On Arduino Uno with C Programming Language

Buddhi College Junior High School is one of the Buddhist schools in Tangerang City in the field of education that requires infrastructure in it. In the era of the Covid-19 pandemic which is increasingly rampant and many activities are dismissed so that it interferes with performance both in terms of education and in the business sector, until in the end many places have to be closed and even have to lose money due to this pandemic, then places must have standard protocols that are met . With this protocol, entrepreneurs and places, one of which is the world of education, need tools that can fulfill the protocol. The lack of knowledge about the symptoms of this disease requires the user to measure his body temperature when entering a place, one of which is a school or university. Temperature gauge is the hotness of an object or object that can be felt. not only used for companies or crowded places, temperature meters can also help health workers to monitor patients easily and quickly. Through the process of understanding until the design process is carried out, an Arduino-based tool design is formed with an algorithm with the c programming language and the workings of the tool to be made. The collected dataset is then sampled for manual processing. The manual process serves to measure the accuracy of the temperature being measured so that it can be implemented on the tool to be made.

Necessity of The Abhidhamma for The Interpretation of Early Buddhist Discourses

This paper presents an overview about the necessity of the Abhidhamma for interpreting several main teachings found in the early Buddhist discourses. The study is based on the Tipiṭaka and some other information taken from exegetical literatures (Aṭṭhakathā). Several important points found in the early Buddhist discourses are critically analyzed in the light of the Abhidhamma. It is found that certain points referring the two kinds of truths which have not been clearly distinguished in the early discourses, are made clear in the Abhidhamma by introducing the two kinds truths, namely sammutisacca and paramatthasacca. Furthermore, some controversial matters such as the doctrine of puggala promulgated by some Buddhist schools, and the wrong views of eternalists and nihilists which are often stated in the early Buddhist discourses but yet not so much discussed, are successfully refuted in the Abhidhamma. Thus, the present study has highlighted the importance of Abhidhamma in giving a better explanation regarding some important and controversial points found in the early discourses.

Influence of Mahayana-Vajrayana School on the Sacred Characteristics of Theravada Vihara in Indonesia

After Buddha parinibbana, difference of views between his disciples in interpreting Dhamma result in the creation of three main Buddhist schools: Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. With slightly different philosophies, these schools also have their own unique architectural characteristics to represent sacredness. However, due to the absence of any architectural literature, wide interpretations of Buddhist teachings, and acculturation with local culture, sacred characteristics of Buddhist architecture became mixed and difficult to distinguish. This research aims to study the influence of Mahayana and Vajrayana schools on the sacred characteristics of Theravada Buddhist architecture in Indonesia. Elaboration of Buddhist architecture and sacredness theory are used to analyse case study in surrounding environment, figure, mass structure, spatial planning, and ornamentation scope to obtain comprehensive acculturation picture of Mahayana and Vajrayana philosophy on Theravada vihara in Indonesia. Based on the results of the analysis, it can be seen that the circular shape that was characteristic of the early Theravada school in the architectural form of the monastery began to be abandoned and the use of anthropomorphic Buddha and iconic symbols as ornamentation elements which were only known in the development of Mahayana and Vajrayana schools.

Korean Buddhism Abroad: A Critical Examination of Overseas Propagation Strategies of Jogye Order’s Hanmaum Seon Center

In the decades following the Korean War (1950–1953), support from Korea’s Jogye Order, the largest of Korea’s Buddhist sects, was instrumental for establishing Korean Buddhism overseas. However, in recent decades, Korean Buddhism has been facing a growing domestic crisis and the number of the Jogye Order’s annual monastic recruits has been declining steadily. This domestic membership crisis has affected Korean Buddhism abroad, as the order has lost over half its foreign temples over the last decade. Nevertheless, despite these downward trends, the nine international branches of the Hanmaum Seon Center, founded by the Jogye Order’s Seon Master Daehaeng, have remained strong. Given the successful example of the Hanmaum Seon Center’s international branches, the Jogye Order’s future efforts abroad might find success by focusing on lay-oriented modes of practice, while balancing their involvement both with local Korean émigré communities and with outreach to local non-Koreans.

Metaphoric Expressions for &lt;i&gt;kaya&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;upātta&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i&gt;ālaya&lt;/i&gt;: The Meaning of the Body

The early Buddhist schools or mainstream sects underwent doctrinal reflections and changes in the manners in which they might explain the elements of existence or the role of revitalizing saṃsāra in order to establish their school identity. In this essay, we confirm that kāya and upātta were created with the same awareness of a problem that stands in the background of the developmental history of bhavaṅga, antarābhava, and ālayavijñāna in the Theravāda, Sarvāstivāda, and Yogācāra schools. We further point out that ālaya has such a probablility in the early Yogācāra school. In addition, the traditional Abhidhamma question of the existence of vijñāna during meditation is an important topic, and it can be seen that bhavaṅga and ālayavijñāna are not only responsible for maintaining the body during meditation, but also for yoga practice.