Bronze Bells Research Articles

A “set” of ancient bronze bells excavated in Changsha, Hunan Province, China

This article explores the criteria used to ascertain whether or not, and how, ancient Chinese bronze bells might form sets of musical instruments, thus clarifying their original intended use by ancient musicians. The focus is on ten bells unearthed from Changsha city in Hunan province in China, which date to the twelfth century BCE. A range of diverse relationships between these bells provide valuable insights that can be explored. Debate is ongoing among music historians regarding the nature of the bells. Some argue that the ten bells do not constitute a set of musical instruments because their designs and acoustic properties lack sufficient similarity and correlation. Conversely, another group of historians suggests that nine of the ten bells could indeed be seen as a set, but with the tenth bell being an outlier due to its distinct design. The third group of historians contends that the ten bells should be considered a musical set because of their organized sequence of consecutive semi-tones, while the design differences of the bells are less significant and can be overlooked if we focus on their musical functions. In this study, we scrutinize the assumptions made by these music historians, including their definitions of design similarity and the sequence of progressive pitches. Further previously overlooked criteria, such as the geographical proximity of these ten bells and others found in neighboring areas, and the incremental changes in the bell sizes, are also considered. Through the use of these criteria we aim to explore a wide range of relationships between ancient Chinese bells and to reassess what other new evidence the bells may offer to the study of ancient Chinese musical concepts. The concept of the chromatic scale discovered by ancient Chinese musicians was embodied on the casting of bronze bells.

Analysis of Cooling a Printed 3D Mold Using a Casting and Solidification Simulation of a CuSn20 Bronze Bell Casting

The work done in this study is a preliminary investigation into the possibility of modelling the filling and solidification process of castings in molds made with the additive method. The work originated from an experiment to produce a bronze casting with a high tin content in an additive mold. The mold filling and solidification simulation was carried out in the MAGMASO FT program, and the lambda thermal conductivity coefficient used in the program’s material database was corrected based on the actual temperature values of the printed form. The results were compared with the modeling results for the physical properties of furan molds based on the program database. The microstructure of the castings obtained in the compared forms was assessed.

Potential scale of industrial outputs of the bronze bell casting industry in 500 BCE China

The potential scale of industrial outputs in the ancient world is often underestimated in current archaeological studies due to the lack of surviving artifacts for validation of the production scale. However, production traces left on extant artifacts can help us reconstruct production methods, and thus reveal the potential scale of production outputs of certain industries, even although there may not be a sufficient number of existing artifacts to demonstrate such volumes. The bronze bell casting industry operating in around 500 BCE in Xinzheng in Henan province, China, can be used as an example to demonstrate the then use by bell casters of the “pattern-block method” to efficiently create multiple bells sharing identical components. With their strong focus on efficiency, production speed, and low production costs, these casters intelligently designed assembly lines and assembled identical components replicated from models to prepare molds for casting. Knowledge of their production methods and currently preserved bells can provide evidence that the bell casting industry produced industrial outputs on a massive scale that was rare in the ancient world. This article also shows how innovative methods such as 3D model superimposition can be used to validate these hypotheses.

Study on the Bronze Bell of Yongtai Temple

Study on the Bronze Bell of Yongtai Temple

Детские погребения первых веков н. э. из могильника Старокорсунского городища № 2

The paper analyzes the material of 26 children’s burials from the Maeotian burial ground. The Infantilis I age category inc­ludes 14 burials, in half of which were buried children aged 3—4 years. Skeletons of children of the age category Infantilis II were found in seven burials. The age of the children from the remaining four burials is not determined. Five graves pits were found, corresponding in size to the height of the buried children. The main position of the buried is extended on the back. The crouched position on the back and on the side is twice as rare. The predominant direction in the orientation is not observed. Most of the burials contained locally produced gray-clay pottery. The dating of the burials is based on the chronology of bronze fibulae of various types of the second half of the 1st to the 2nd centuries AD, found in 10 complexes. Jewelry is represented by bronze arm rings, finger rings, earrings and beads, among which are figured pendants made of “Egyptian” faience, which are usually considered apotropaic. In two burials, bronze bells were found, which, it is believed, performed a protective function. In general, children’s burials coincide with the burials of adults in terms of the rite and the composition of the accompanying inventory. However, some notable differences can also be distinguished: the absence of weapons, the almost complete absence of pieces for a belt set, and rare tools.

Детские погребения раннесредневекового некрополя Боспора

The article publishes children’s burials, investigated in 2007 and 2009. in Kerch, on the site of the Bosporan necropolis in the Bosphorus Lane. Ordinary townspeople were buried in the necropolis at the end of the 6th—8th centuries. Children, as well as adults, were buried in graves with slab-lined sides and covered with several slabs on top. In some graves, crosses are cut on the slabs. Many of the children’s burials contain clothing accessories and jewelry worn during life. Bronze bells were found only in children’s burials, intended to protect against evil forces.

On the Graphic Variants of Wei 為 in the Bamboo Slips and Bronze Bells from the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng

Abstract Among the written sources discovered from the tomb of the Marquis Yi of Zeng 曾侯 乙墓, the character wei 為 distinguishes itself for its potential to reflect the difference of scribes/copyists through its graphic variations. This article attempts to use the different variations of wei on bamboo slips and bronze inscriptions to investigate the relationship between scribes/copyists of these two media. This article proposes that the scribes/copyists who produced the same variation of wei on bamboo slips and bronze inscriptions belonged to one school of scribes.

Learning Burmese (Saung Gauk) Music: Pathway Through World Music Pedagogy

The Burmese arched harp, known as Saung Gauk, is the national icon of the Southeast Asian country of Myanmar (once called Burma). It is both ancient and contemporary, and its music frequently carries stories that are threaded with long-standing philosophical principles of the Burmese. The music of the Saung Gauk consists of five primary pitches (and two ornamental extras) that provide intriguing melodies, and a bronze bell and wood clapper provide the accompanying rhythm in traditional practice, even while Burmese-style piano and tuned drums may fill out an ensemble in which Saung Gauk is featured. A learning pathway will detail ways to approach this extraordinary music and the special place of this harp in Burmese identity.

The Nguyen Dynasty with the Aesthetic Value of Bronze Relics in Hue

This paper aims to analyze the nguyen dynasty with the aesthetic value of bronze relics in hue. The method using observations, experience, synthesis analysis, historical and dialectical methods and draws some educational lessons for students. This study shows that Copper material is also one of the materials used a lot in objects with religious elements such as bronze bells, bronze bells, etc. Last but not elast, the aesthetic value of decorative art on bronze in Hue is also the combination of basic elements and the fusion of cultural factors.

Technological Insights into the Evolution of Bronze Bell Metal Casting on the Korean Peninsula

Bronze cast bells have been designed and developed for hundreds of years, with the worldwide spread of several faiths and religions such as Buddhism, Catholicism, and Protestantism. The exceptional ringtones of bronze bell metals have scientific healing and cultural importance. In this review article, we highlight the evolution of bronze bell metal over the decades, its composition, and the complex fabrication technologies used to date. Furthermore, we overview ancient and modern casting alloy technology, especially bronze bell castings in Asia. The bell shape, materials, and alloy casting technology have undergone dramatic change over the years. For comparison, we include different bronze cast bells and their characteristics produced from the Middle Ages to the present times. Based on the data obtained from the bell casting technology surrounding the Korean Peninsula, the major trends in the evolution of bronze bell castings and long-standing traditions of mold materials and alloys are described. In the present review, the effects of different elements on bell materials are qualitatively overviewed, with an assessment of the material and casting properties, service life, and bell sound. We also highlight the challenges of conventional bronze casting and possible solutions for future investment castings and rapid prototyping of bronze bells.

Scientific study of bronze bells of the Western Zhou period recovered in Yichang, Hubei

The invention of yongzhong (甬钟), the major chime-bell type of the Zhou (周) dynasty, has been seen as a key sign for the rise of Zhou ritual. From this perspective, the accidental discovery of 11 bronze bells dated to the Western Zhou period (11th–8th centuries BC) at the Wanfunao (万福垴) site in Yichang, Hubei Province in 2012 is significant for understanding the development of early Chu (楚) culture in Hubei and its relationship with the metropolitan area of the Zhou kingdom in Shaanxi. This paper reports the results of scientific analyses of these bells using an optical microscope, portable XRF, SEM-EDS and ICP-EDS. It is revealed that some of these bells are made of Cu-Sn-As (Sb) alloys, while others are of Cu-Sn alloys. It is argued that the use of arsenic–containing bronzes for casting bells in the Western Zhou period has important social implications, and is significant for exploring the rise of regional bronze production as well as the circulation of metal resources in the Western Zhou period.

2020년 발행 『중학교 역사②』 교과서의 ｢선사 문화와 고대 국가의 형성｣ 단원 서술 검토

This thesis reviewed the textual description of Chapter I ‘Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of an Ancient Nation’ of the 『Middle School History 2』 textbook developed according to the 2015 revised curriculum and used in school fields since 2020. First, by comparing the 2009 revised curriculum with the 2015 revised curriculum, the differences were confirmed, and the system and amount of text descriptions were compared for each textbook. Then, the textbook descriptions were reviewed by dividing the textbook into three categories: in case of errors or misunderstandings, in cases where academic research results are not reflected or in the case of controversy in theories, and other improvements. As a result of the analysis, there were several problems and improvements. The important ones are as follows. In the section ''Prehistoric Culture and Gojoseon'', first, the statement that rice farming started in the Bronze Age is an error because there was a lot of evidence of rice farming in the Neolithic Age. Second, it is wrong to present the pictures of bronze bells, small bronze swords, and agricultural patterns made in the Iron Age while introducing the relics of the Bronze Age. Third, there is a textbook that describes Gojoseon as a society that values human life through the eight laws of Gojoseon. However, this interpretation is wrong because the Gojoseon society was a society in which, when the ruler died, the slaves or maids were buried together in the grave. Fourth, since about 44,000 dolmens have been investigated in the Korean Peninsula alone, it is difficult to interpret them as the tombs of the rulers. In the ''Growth of Many Countries'' unit, first, the period of the countries described in this unit is not described in any textbooks, but the period must be revealed. Buyeo, Okjeo, and Dongye were annexed to Goguryeo, and the relationship between Mahan and Baekje, Jinhan and Silla, and Byeonhan and Gaya federations should be described. Second, ‘tribe’ is a term that refers to an egalitarian society in the Neolithic Age, so it should not be used as a term to refer to a political group in the Bronze Age or Iron Age. Third, it is necessary to describe the historical significance of Buyeo. In the ''Formation and Development of the Three Kingdoms'' section, first, the textbook description needs to be revised because King Seong of Baekje did not lead the army and attacked Silla, but was led by the Crown Prince Yeochang. Second, there is controversy about the time when the capital of Goguryeo was moved to Gukneacastle. However, what is written before King Taejo appears to be true during the reign of King Yuri, so it needs to be corrected. Third, it is correct to correct the statements that ‘the rule of law was promulgated’ or ‘the six jwapyeongs and the sixteen halls were installed’ during the reign of King Goi, as they are not orthodoxy in academia. Fourth, the fact that King Geunchogo of Baekje conquered Mahan and occupied the southern coast of Jeolla-do did not match the recent academic achievements, so it is time to consider a revision. In the section ''Culture of the Three Kingdoms and External Exchanges'', first, the stone tombs (Seokchon-dong tombs) of the early Baekje period are cited as the basis that the royal family of Baekje originated from Goguryeo. However, it was made at a different time, and it is difficult to believe that it was made by a person from Goguryeo. Second, the description of the spread of the culture of the Three Kingdoms and Gaya to Japan is still described as a one-sided spread, despite repeated criticisms from academia. A narrative is needed in terms of interaction.

Footprints of a Golden Camel Near Qin Shihuangdi’s Mausoleum

The article presents materials of the excavations of Qin burials near the area of the Mausoleum of Qin Shihuang. To the west of its outer wall, a burial ground of nine large tombs has been excavated, which are dated to the age of the empire's formation, however the possibility of an earlier date is not excluded. The most interesting finds were reportedly from grave M1, which included bronze bells and ritual vessels, iron armament, jade scepters and disks, gold buckles, numerous metal figurines of people and animals, including gold and silver camels. This discovery made it possible to raise the question of the formation of a stable trade “highway”, later determined as the Great Silk Road, already in the late period of the Qin Dynasty (the last quarter of 3 rd century BC), but not under the rule of Han Emperor Wu-di (156–87 BC), as previously thought. Perhaps a high-ranking dignitary buried in grave M1 was chief administrator of this project, therefore he can be denoted as “Qin Zhang Qian”. One more golden trail leading from the depths of Asia to the Yellow River’s valley can be found in the nine golden buttons from grave M5, excavated at Taerpo, in the area of Xianyang, the ancient capital of the state of Qin. Some of the buttons were decorated by granulation, and it is highly likely that such technology could have penetrated into China from Western Asia. The materials obtained from these excavations once again illustrate how the Qin Empire, despite its short life and inglorious death, managed to lay many important pillars of future development.

Study on the Bronze Bell Cast by Mausoleum-Guarding Officials in 1508

Study on the Bronze Bell Cast by Mausoleum-Guarding Officials in 1508

Shells as a Costume Element of the Turkic-Ugric Population of the Saltiv Culture (Based on Materials from the Krasna Hirka Biritual Burial Ground)

In eight burials (seven inhumations and one cremation) of the Krasna Hirka burial ground in Kharkiv region, there were found the pendants made of sea shells of the mollusk «Cypraea moneta» (burials Nos. 53, 176, 180, 191, 195, 311) (figs. 1: 2, 19, 20; 2: 15, 32; 3: 11; 4: 19; 5: 9) and pendants made of the valves of river mollusks («Unió pictorum» or «Anodonta») (burials Nos. 53, 185, 309) (figs. 2: 16, 33, 34; 6: 23—29). The pendants were present in the child’s burials (burials Nos. 53, 180, 185, 191, 195, 309) and young women of childbearing age (burials Nos. 176, 311). The location of shells jewelry in the burials indicates that they were sewn on clothes and headwear (burial No. 309), they were a part of removable breast ornaments (burial No. 176) (fig. 5: 15), a handbag decoration that was hung to the belt (burial Nos. 185, 191, 311) (figs. 2: 17; 3: 1; 4: 1), also they were woven together with glass beads, bronze bells and bronze spiral beads into the braids of buried people (burials Nos. 53, 180, 195) (fig. 2: 1). The arrangement of the pendants in the burial No. 309 allows asserting that three pendants adorned the child’s cap, being sewn at the area of the temples and on the crown (fig. 7: 2). By the location of the beads, bronze beads, bells and four more pendants of mollusks shells (fig. 7: 1), it can be seen that the collar of the child’s clothes in the neck area was decorated with monochrome beads and small beads sewn on, and four shell pendants that were sewn onto the child’s clothes in the chest area (fig. 7: 3). Polychrome beads (eye-shaped and striped), together with cast bronze bells and bronze beads, were threaded into the child’s braids (fig. 7: 4). In the investigated burials, the shell pendants resembled protective amulets. The connection of these jewelry with the water element, their shape and colour (white/ pearl) indicate that they are related to the cult of the Moon and are a symbol of the Great Goddess — the mother/ progenitor of all living beings and the giver of all life’s blessings.

О ритуальных практиках населения гороховской культуры

The article is devoted to the ritual practices of the population of the Gorokhovo culture, which were reconstructed based on materials of the burial mounds Vodennikovo-I and Murzino-IV. We assumed that the vessels with red-hot talc hammers were used for ritual purification and fumigation of the space before placing the deceased. Bronze bells were probably considered magical items that could provide a link between the living and the dead. We associate the absence of a bell clapper with the Ugric tradition of tying up clappers and hiding noisy things during the wake, as well as the tradition of deliberately damaging the things. Bronze wheels could be used as flywheels for whirligig in divination or spindle whorls in sacral spinning. This material allows us to talk about two main components that underlie the worldview of the population of the Gorokhovo culture — substrate Ugric component and superstrate Iranian component.

Memorials and the Mine Disaster in Monongah, West Virginia: From Trauma to an Italian Global Memoryscape

Memorials and the Mine Disaster in Monongah, West Virginia: From Trauma to an Italian Global Memoryscape

“Bird Script” is not Bird Script

Ever since the 1930s, scholars have adopted the Eastern Han terms niaoshu 鳥書 (bird script) and niaochongshu 鳥蟲書 (bird and insect script) to refer to the beautiful gold inlaid writing, with added bird elements, inscribed on bronzes associated with Wu and Yue. However, before the 1930s, no experts agreed on how to define these terms. This paper argues that “bird script,” as used by Eastern Han writers, described writing on seals, banners, and a popular calligraphic style, none of which had added bird elements. Also, the florid style of writing inscribed on the Mancheng vessels was neither “bird script” nor related to the earlier Wu and Yue inscriptions. After discussing the florescence of Wu and Yue scripts, and then Eastern Han uses of the term “bird script,” this paper examines known examples of attempts by Songperiod antiquarians at reading characters with bird elements, including a fifth-century bronze bell from Yue. Although familiar with Eastern Han writings on scripts, Song scholars neither described these inscriptions as “bird script,” nor placed these bronzes in their correct historical contexts. Apparently, added bird elements was not yet a criterion for “bird script.” Subsequently, this paper explores the initial breakthroughs in the process of deciphering Wu and Yue scripts in the late Qing and early twentieth century. Although this was the first time some inscriptions with added bird elements were called “bird script,” this paper shows that the term was still not universally adopted by philologists until 1934, when Rong Geng 容庚 (1894–1983) produced the first systematic study of Eastern Zhou writing with added bird elements. Thanks to Rong Geng, scholars today can read pre-unification inscriptions from the southeast coast; unfortunately, Rong’s anachronistic use of “bird script” and “bird and insect script” has continued to this day.

A Report Trip from Odaesan National Park & Woljeongsa Temple

South Korea, 'The Land of the Morning Calm', offers a different experience through a peaceful getaway to the Buddhist temple at Odaesan Mountain for historical tourism enthusiasts. Visiting the Odaesan national park offers various close-to-nature tourism experiences. The 11th South Korea's national Park covers areas spread across Gangneung-si, Hongcheon-gun, and Pyeongchang-gun in Gangwon-do Province??. The Park is a sanctuary for many native Korean animals and plants. Visitors may hike some of the peaks in the area, such as Birobong Peak, Durobong, Dongdaesan and Sogeumgang peaks. For those who would love to witness the country's national treasures, tourists may visit sangwonsa and woljeongsa temple in the vicinity. Woljeongsa and sangwonsa Temples are famous temples in Gangwon Province. It has been a museum for National Treasures of South Korea and cultural properties that recorded part of ancient history. Some of the relics are Dong Jong or Bronze Bell (National Treasure No. 36), Octagonal nine-story Stone Pagoda (National Treasure No. 48), Wooden Seated Child Manjushri of Sangwonsa Temple (National Treasure No. 221) and Documents of Sangwonsa Temple (National Treasure No. 292).

A study on archaeological production sites of South Korean bronze bells through slag and soil analysis

A study on archaeological production sites of South Korean bronze bells through slag and soil analysis