Bronze Research Articles

Warriors from the south? Arrowheads from the Tollense Valley and Central Europe

Investigations in the Tollense Valley in north-eastern Germany have provided evidence of a large and violent conflict in the thirteenth century BC. Typological analysis of arrowheads from the valley (10 flint and 54 bronze specimens) and comparison with type distributions in Central Europe, presented here for the first time, emphasise the supra-regional nature of the conflict. While the flint arrowheads are typical for the local Nordic Bronze Age, the bronze arrowheads show a mixture of local and non-local forms, adding to the growing evidence for a clash between local groups and at least one incoming group from southern Central Europe.

QURAYYAH PAINTED WARE OUTSIDE THE HEJAZ: EVIDENCE OF A COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE IN THE LATE BRONZE AND EARLY IRON AGES?

SummaryQurayyah Painted Ware (QPW) is the most solid evidence of contacts between the Hejaz and the southern Levant in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages. However, even after decades of research, there is still much uncertainty regarding the chronology of these contacts and their nature. Here, we present an exceptionally rich collection of QPW fragments documented recently in the copper smelting sites of the Timna Valley. We argue that the distribution of this painted ware in the southern Levant extended from the early thirteenth to ninth centuries BC and that its prominent presence in industrial contexts in the Aravah Valley is related to the transmission of metallurgical ‘know‐how’ from the Hejaz, which included rituals in which QPW vessels took part. While the original exchange probably involved craftspeople from the Hejaz in the Aravah's metalworking, the continuous use of QPW throughout several centuries in the southern Levant is best explained as a reflection of an enduring community of practice of the local populations with the metalworkers of the Hejaz.

Decorated Bone Tube Manufacture in Early Bronze Age Israel: Experimental Analysis of Bone Preparation and Incising

ABSTRACT Experimental replication of decorated bone tubes was carried out to determine possible methods of defleshing and to define the nature of linear cut-marks on the bones made by different cutting implements. These studies were carried out to interpret more precisely the production techniques for incised bone tubes recovered from Early Bronze Age (EB) contexts at the site of Tell el-Hesi dating to 2800–2700 bce (EBIIIA). Previous studies had assumed that the bones were incised using metal chisels found on-site, but the new experiments demonstrate that the incised lines were most likely made using denticulated metal (copper/bronze) saws. Modern cow metapodials were defleshed and then cut and sawn with different types of tools. Impressions were made of the experimental and archaeological incised lines and the impressions were studied using Scanning Electron Microscopy. The incised lines made using denticulated metal saws most closely match the incised lines of the ancient incised bone tubes.

Late Bronze Age crops from Çine-Tepecik, western Anatolia: insights into farming and political economy in the lands of Arzawa

A dearth of published archaeobotanical data from the Late Bronze Age of western Anatolia limits our understanding of agricultural production in this key area. Recent excavations at Çine-Tepecik provide insights into farming and the political economy in the kingdom of Mira within the lands of Arzawa. Archaeobotanical assemblages indicate that farming was structured to meet both domestic and institutional consumption; the former utilising a wide range of crop species while the latter focused on cereals. Plant remains provide further evidence for a ‘hybrid’ suite of farming practices across western Anatolia and contribute to debate around the spread of broomcorn millet cultivation.

Mining, farming, and diplomacy. Understanding the human landscape of Bronze Age Sardinia (Italy) through geospatial analysis

Human agency on landscape modification and land use is often seen in terms of socio-economic opportunities vs. natural constraints. In the study of prehistoric cultures this is both a strong source of information about sustenance strategies and community behaviours, and a subject potentially easy to analyse within a limited set of physical and social parameters. The recent advancements in the use of spatial analysis tools in landscape archaeology allow to obtain ever more precise models. However, studies that compare at the same time the geological landscape and social elements are very scarce. We used Point Pattern Analysis and Modelling to investigate megalithic structures (nuraghes) in Bronze Age southwestern Sardinia (Italy) and identify correlations between their spatial patterns and a set of covariates encompassing both environmental (i.e. topography and geological resources) and cultural factors. The models which best represent pattern distribution come from the combination of covariates from both groups.The models highlight a close distance from known ore deposits and show a clear dependence of Nuragic populations to ore extraction and metallurgy. The availability of fertile soils with moderate permeability and moderately low pH is also significant, as well as a preference to prominent locations with a positive correlation with the Topographic Position Index and the Convexity Index. From a cultural standpoint, we observed a consistent aggregation of simple nuraghes around complex nuraghes at mid-short distances. The occurrence of polycentric patterns can be explained either by the former emerging from the presence of the latter or vice versa, and is typically associated with a loosely stratified social structure devoid of strong hierarchies. These results underscore the efficacy of spatial analysis in disentangling and juxtaposing the physical and social factors influencing the distribution of past culture, and offer new insight on the development of Bronze Age societies in their geographical context.

One step from oxides to sustainable bulk alloys

Metallurgical production traditionally involves three steps: extracting metals from ores, mixing them into alloys by liquid processing and thermomechanical processing to achieve the desired microstructures1,2. This sequential approach, practised since the Bronze Age, reaches its limit today because of the urgent demand for a sustainable economy2–5: almost 10% of all greenhouse gas emissions are because of the use of fossil reductants and high-temperature metallurgical processing. Here we present a H2-based redox synthesis and compaction approach that reforms traditional alloy-making by merging metal extraction, alloying and thermomechanical processing into one single solid-state operation. We propose a thermodynamically informed guideline and a general kinetic conception to dissolve the classical boundaries between extractive and physical metallurgy, unlocking tremendous sustainable bulk alloy design opportunities. We exemplify this approach for the case of Fe–Ni invar bulk alloys6,7, one of the most appealing ferrous materials but the dirtiest to produce: invar shows uniquely low thermal expansion6,8,9, enabling key applications spanning from precision instruments to cryogenic components10–13. Yet, it is notoriously eco-unfriendly, with Ni causing more than 10 times higher CO2 emission than Fe per kilogram production2,14, qualifying this alloy class as a perfect demonstrator case. Our sustainable method turns oxides directly into green alloys in bulk forms, with application-worthy properties, all obtained at temperatures far below the bulk melting point, while maintaining a zero CO2 footprint.

An explanation for the sister repulsion phenomenon in Patterson's f-statistics.

Patterson's f-statistics are among the most heavily utilized tools for analyzing genome-wide allele frequency data for demographic inference. Beyond studying admixture, f3- and f4-statistics are also used for clustering populations to identify groups with similar histories. However, previous studies have noted an unexpected behavior of f-statistics: multiple populations from a certain region systematically show higher genetic affinity to a more distant population than to their neighbors, a pattern that is mismatched with alternative measures of genetic similarity. We call this counter-intuitive pattern "sister repulsion". We first present a novel instance of sister repulsion, where genomes from Bronze Age East Anatolian sites show higher affinity toward Bronze Age Greece rather than each other. This is observed both using f3- and f4-statistics, contrasts with archaeological/historical expectation, and also contradicts genetic affinity patterns captured using principal components analysis or multidimensional scaling on genetic distances. We then propose a simple demographic model to explain this pattern, where sister populations receive gene flow from a genetically distant source. We calculate f3- and f4-statistics using simulated genetic data with varying population genetic parameters, confirming that low-level gene flow from an external source into populations from 1 region can create sister repulsion in f-statistics. Unidirectional gene flow between the studied regions (without an external source) can likewise create repulsion. Meanwhile, similar to our empirical observations, multidimensional scaling analyses of genetic distances still cluster sister populations together. Overall, our results highlight the impact of low-level admixture events when inferring demographic history using f-statistics.

The Idea of ‘Loosening the Bond Between Ground and Structure’ in Antiquity and Archaeological Evidence on Antiseismic Foundations

Antiseismic structures in antiquity are often overlooked or disputed by those working in the field, even though they are not mentioned in written sources. At the very least, it should be recognized that some of the traditional structures and building techniques of ancient cultures in Anatolia and surrounding regions were antiseismic before today’s concrete structures. In fact, these techniques were sometimes applied over a wide geographical area and sometimes in a narrower region, as if under the control of a central government, administration or idea, and continue to be used for a long time. Archaeological studies reveal that some construction methods were widely used to support structures affected by dynamic loads. Such methods were applied and developed by engineers, architects and artisans who were fully aware of the effects of earthquakes on structures. Therefore, antiseismic structures must have emerged due to awareness of earthquake hazards. Wood in foundations and walls in Anatolia in the Bronze Ages, sand in Mesopotamia and Egypt, sand, ash, coal and lime in Greek architecture, and opus caementicum in Rome were applied in and under the foundation in more durable or long-lasting building construction techniques. Undoubtedly, wood and wood foundations have been known and used since the Bronze Age. Unfortunately, with the emergence of new materials and technologies, the traditional architectural understanding of Anatolia was almost wholly removed from construction practice. As in modern constructions, in archaeological studies, attention is paid to the structures’ above- ground units, while the underground foundation sections are overlooked. Data about the use of wood in the groundwork is sometimes discovered by chance. This article demonstrates that the idea of loosening the bond between structure and ground was known in ancient times. Although the technical solutions used in the past match the principles of base insulation, it is arguable whether they are genuinely antiseismic as they are today.

The diversity of bronze production technologies during the Eastern Zhou dynasty revealed by analysis of slags from the Baidian and Xincun sites in Central China

The Eastern Zhou period of China, characterised by complex interactions among vassal states, witnessed significant advancements in bronze production technology. However, the investigation of interactions based on technological comparison among dominant and dependent states remains limited. Focusing on two newly excavated foundry sites, Baidian in Houma, Shanxi, and Xincun in Hebi, Henan, this study provides crucial insights into the bronze production technologies and material sources used by Jin, a major vassal state in Central China, and Wei, a dependent state of Jin, during the Eastern Zhou period. Elemental analysis and microstructural examinations of slags, fragments of crucible wall and furnace wall, show the diversity of bronze production techniques between these two sites: in the Baidian site, bronzes were predominantly produced by co-melting of metallic copper and tin, and remelting of recycled bronzes, whereas in the Xincun site, bronze were probably made by co-melting of copper and tin ore. Furthermore, lead isotope analysis results suggest that the lead materials used for the bronze production at both the sites were likely from the Xiaoqinling region. Integrated with the historical background of complex interactions among vassal states, these findings not only shed light on the technological advancements and resource networks of the Jin and Wei states but also explain the relationships between technology, resources and social dynamics from various perspective. Hopefully this research would promote archeometallurgical study among regions and be applied to other Bronze Age cultures in the world.

One city to rule them all? The production of copper in Enkomi, Cyprus: the evidence from the metallurgical ceramic assemblage

The sociopolitical organisation of Cyprus during the Late Bronze Age (LBA) is still an active field of scholarly debate. In the second half of the 2nd mil. BCE, the prevailing interpretations favour either a unified or a decentralised administration model on the island. Enkomi is listed as one of the most important Late Cypriot (LC) sites in both models. The rise of this urban centre can be largely attributed to the control of copper production during the LC period. The results of the chemical and microstructural analysis of the archaeometallurgical ceramic assemblage from the copper workshops in Area III at Enkomi are presented here. Our research revealed that the ceramics were exclusively used for copper-based secondary metallurgical activities. This project, the first in Cypriot archaeometallurgy to focus solely on technical ceramics, adds significant new knowledge to the reconstruction of the copper production organisation and Enkomi’s standing among the LC polities. Furthermore, these new findings pave the way for the development of a comparative analysis of the various stages of the copper production sequence in Cyprus, as reflected in metallurgical ceramic assemblages.

Secrets Buried in the Pits: Ritual Activities in Western Anatolia in the First Half of the Second Millennium bce

Western Anatolian ritual pits provide valuable insights into socio-cultural, economic and symbolic practices during the Early to Middle Bronze Age. Findings in feasting pits, such as carbonized seeds and animal bones, indicate a strong link between ritual and food. Standing stones, altars and carefully arranged artefacts suggest a symbolic and sacred dimension beyond mere ceremonies. The pits from this period contain carbonized seeds and fragments of wood, indicating the presence of small fires during certain rituals. Changing features in ritual pits from the Early to Middle Bronze Age reveal a dynamic relationship between spatial arrangements and religious practices. The study shows that in the first half of the second millennium bce several ritual activities known from different regions reached western Anatolia for the first time. Interregional trade involved not only goods, but also the dissemination of rituals over a wide geographical area. This cultural interaction reveals western Anatolia as a dynamic and influential centre in this historical period. By exploring the ritual practices of second-millennium bce western Anatolia, this paper presents new perspectives on the rituals of the region.

DEMOGRAPHIC PATTERNS IN HYLLIE MOSSE (SCANIA, SWEDEN): ESTIMATING ABSOLUTE POPULATION BETWEEN THE LATE NEOLITHIC AND THE EARLY BRONZE AGES

SummaryThis paper reconstructs the population dynamics within the Hyllie Mosse region (Scania, Sweden) from 2400 to 1600 BC. South‐western Scania is particularly well‐known thanks to extensive archaeological work in the past decades, making it one of the most thoroughly investigated areas in Sweden. The Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age periods are of paramount importance in understanding the socio‐cultural transformations within the Baltic region. By integrating a comprehensive database of longhouses from Scania with the available archaeological data from the Hyllie Mosse area, this study provides absolute demographic estimates through a transparent and replicable methodology. It highlights that the region experienced a significant peak in human occupation between 2000 and 1800 BC, followed by a decline. In prehistoric times, the area was covered by a relatively large bog, and was therefore not uniformly settled. At its peak, it is estimated that the region, approximately 9.7 km2 in size – 4 km2 of which have been archaeologically investigated – could have supported 75 to 150 inhabitants.

Traces of Disease in Cremated Children’s Bones: Age and Health in Bronze and Iron Age Communities North and South of the Alps

Traces of Disease in Cremated Children’s Bones: Age and Health in Bronze and Iron Age Communities North and South of the Alps

One place, many worlds – nutrition strategies of human groups inhabiting the site 3 in Miechów (southern Poland) since the Neolithic until the Iron Age

Abstract Studies on the ratios of stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen constitute a research tool commonly applied in bioarchaeology to reconstruct human diets, including the origins of proteins consumed, the relationship between plant and animal foods, weaning processes, and parameters of the environment from which the food was obtained. Within the comprehensive analysis of the excavation results carried out at site 3 in Miechów (approximately 30 km north of Kraków), isotope analyses of δ13C and δ15N were performed on the human groups that inhabited the site from the Neolithic to the Iron Age. In total, 41 skeletons were investigated. The analyses aimed to hypothesise the nutritional strategies of communities of successive periods and to compare the knowledge obtained with current data and interpretations on food management in prehistoric communities of Central Europe. The results indicate a general predominance of a terrestrial diet, with plant-based foods prevailing, although not conspicuously. However, there are indications of slightly varying nutritional strategies among successive human groups. These differences are related to the contribution of animal protein and the relationship between C3 and C4 plants. For instance, in the Middle Neolithic (4th millennium BC), a greater consumption of meat and/or cereals from manured fields can be postulated compared to the Early Neolithic (late 6th and 5th millennia BC). On the other hand, the proportion of meat in the diet of Early Bronze Age inhabitants (2nd millennium BC) was possibly the lowest in the entire history of site occupation. This proportion returned to near-Neolithic levels in the developed Bronze Age and Iron Age (1st millennium BC). Regarding plant food, the results indicate greater variability in the plants consumed in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Levels of δ13C imply some contribution from C4 plants, that is, millet, during these periods. This aligns with recently formulated theories suggesting the post-Neolithic beginnings of millet cultivation and consumption in Central Europe.

Obsidian and Rock Crystal Artefacts as Prestige Finds Based on Raw Material Resources in Çine-Tepecik

Abstract Within its location on the Çine plain, south of the Great Meander River, Çine-Tepecik is an important settlement inhabited continuously from the Chalcolithic to the end of the Bronze Age. Çine-Tepecik reflects an advanced lithic assemblage based on different raw material resources from the earliest period. Obsidian is among the earliest finds in Tepecik showing interregional trade based on the system of exchange, and is a resource that societies prioritized in their social lives and interregional communication since the beginning of the settlement process. Starting from the 4th millennium BCE until the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, obsidian was obtained from three main resources in the Aegean. These are Melos and Antiparos from the Cyclades; Giali from the Dodecanese and Göllü Dağ, Nenezi and Acıgöl from Central Anatolia. These connections, based on trade with the Aegean and Central Anatolia, reveal a skilled craft of obsidian tool production, as well as an obsidian and rock crystal vessel tradition in Tepecik during the Middle Bronze Age. The assemblage, which has a special meaning among prestige products, belongs to a craft activity that requires skill and experience, and is an indicator of socio-cultural richness. During the 2nd millennium BCE, in the wide geographical region covering Anatolia, Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean obsidian and rock crystal vessels were among the special items produced for the royal or elite class. The stone vessel assemblage reflects the political and economic power of these regions, and also provides an understanding of interregional cultural and commercial connections. In the Çine-Tepecik Middle Bronze Age settlement, the obsidian and rock crystal vessel traditions followed a similar chronological development as the geography extending to Anatolia, the Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean, and brings new finds to regional archaeology.

Granhammar Man: axed down and thrown into the sea in Late Bronze Age Uppland, Sweden

Abstract In 1953 a human skeleton and a set of tools made from antler, bone, bronze, stone and wood was found embedded in marine clay under a former inlet of Lake Mälaren at Granhammar in Västra Ryd parish, Uppland province, Sweden. Andreas Oldeberg and Nils-Gustaf Gejvall published the find in 1959, and for half a century it did not see continued study. This paper reports on a comprehensive series of re-studies and laboratory analyses of the skeleton and the artefact finds. Among the results are an unambiguous date by multiple methods in the late 800s cal BC, i. e. late Period V in Montelius’ chronology. Inferences are made about the individual’s geographical origin, diet and main occupation. Comparisons are made with the victims of mass violence from Tollense Valley in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. In a time and place where almost every dead person was cremated and no human remains were buried under anything but the strictest ritualised circumstances, Granhammar Man offers something unique and valuable. He was killed in combat far from home and sank to the sea floor with his leather-working equipment.

Bronze Age to Roman period salt production in the coastal areas of peninsular Italy: Palaeoenvironments, production methods and archaeological evidence

The landscape characteristics and salt production methods along the coasts of peninsular Italy from the Bronze Age to the Roman period are examined, with a focus on the significance of marine salt for Italy's ancient food economy, given the limited availability of rock salt. Two main methods of marine salt production are highlighted. Briquetage involves using clay or pottery containers to evaporate seawater, which requires specific environmental conditions such as clay availability and significant human labour and technological skill. Conversely, salterns consist of creating shallow ponds or pools for seawater evaporation, demanding flat coastal areas, a stable climate, and controlled seawater flow. While this method is less labour-intensive, it requires substantial initial infrastructure.The potential for salt production in Italy's coastal palaeoenvironments using either method has been evaluated. Key factors include coastal geomorphology, climate stability, and access to raw materials. This environmental data supports an analysis of archaeological remains from salt production sites active from the Bronze Age to the Roman period. The assessment focuses on the material evidence such as clay containers from briquetage and structural remains of salterns, aiming to understand the spatial and temporal distribution of these sites.The discussion also explores the geopolitical implications of salt production, examining how the distribution and development of these sites were affected by broader geopolitical shifts in Italy, including the impact of (proto)urbanization on the expansion and adaptation of salt production practices.

Cypriot Fabrics? White Slip Pottery and Élite Linen Clothes of the Late Bronze Age

Abstract In this article we will point to the similarity between the decoration on Cypriot White Slip (WS) I and II pottery and contemporary 15th–14th-century BCE “Syrian” elite garments shown in 18th Dynasty Egyptian tombs. Depiction of men and women in the tombs of Rekhmire (TT100), Sobekhotep (TT63), Menkheperraseneb (TT86), and Anen (TT120) show white clothes decorated with both vertical and horizontal elements, with dotted and wavy additions. Such elements find direct parallels in the WS I decorative “vocabulary.” We will examine the possibility that the Cypriot WS pottery imitates elite linen clothing produced during the international Late Bronze Age, some even on Cyprus, as indicated by the mention of “linen of Alashiya” (gad uru Alašiya) in Hittite inventory texts.

Low Genetic Impact of the Roman Occupation of Britain in Rural Communities.

The Roman period saw the empire expand across Europe and the Mediterranean, including much of what is today Great Britain. While there is written evidence of high mobility into and out of Britain for administrators, traders, and the military, the impact of imperialism on local, rural population structure, kinship, and mobility is invisible in the textual record. The extent of genetic change that occurred in Britain during the Roman military occupation remains underexplored. Here, using genome-wide data from 52 ancient individuals from eight sites in Cambridgeshire covering the period of Roman occupation, we show low levels of genetic ancestry differentiation between Romano-British sites and indications of larger populations than in the Bronze Age and Neolithic. We find no evidence of long-distance migration from elsewhere in the Empire, though we do find one case of possible temporary mobility within a family unit during the Late Romano-British period. We also show that the present-day patterns of genetic ancestry composition in Britain emerged after the Roman period.

Late Bronze Age salt production in the Carpathians and its socio-economic context

The paper focuses on observations of Late Bronze Age salt production at Tyrawa Solna in southeastern Poland. The discoveries of the evaporation and combustion of brine by means of briquetage from the San area in the Eastern Beskids are put into relation with the current state of knowledge on contemporaneous salt production and the salt trade at this time beyond the ancient world. Furthermore, aspects of social and economic conditions in the first centuries of the last millennium BC relevant to the topic are considered.