British Rule Research Articles

Decline and Revival of Jute Industry

This research paper investigates India's jute business, documenting its beginnings, expansion, and influence on the economics and society of the country. Jute, sometimes known as the "golden fiber," has long been used in Indian manufacture and trade. It dives into important turning points, scientific advancements, economic shifts, and sociological implications that have shaped the jute industry's history. This article examines how the jute industry has developed and adapted to changing conditions by examining the historical context, legislative acts, and global market dynamics. The Jute Industry saw great expansion in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, but has faced substantial obstacles in the twenty-first century, including as raw material limitations, the introduction of polymer substitutes, and worldwide rivalry in jute manufacture. Unfortunately, the jute industry has failed, resulting in worker devaluation and catastrophic situations in West Bengal, India's main jute producing state. This research paper will look at the circumstances that led to India's jute culture, its height during British rule, the aftereffects of the 1947 split, and the Indian government's efforts to reinvigorate and preserve the ailing industry both in the state and throughout the country.

Nationalism at Bay: The Chinese Nationalist Policy towards Hong Kong, 1946–1949

The Chinese Nationalist government's Hong Kong policy appeared to be successful from 1946 to 1949. While its official principle was to shelve the matter until civil conflicts ceased, the government adopted tough rhetoric and actions in dealing with any troubles deriving from the colony, which underlined the uncertain political future of Hong Kong that the British could not ignore. However, this tactic was a result of the Nationalists' failure to strike a balance between the public's and local authorities' clamour for the colony's immediate retrocession and the central government's postponement policy. As a result, not only did the matter of Hong Kong remain unresolved but the public discontent against the government escalated and the Sino‐British relationship reached its nadir. Yet the “unintended claim” that the failure in balancing caused posed a serious threat to British rule in Hong Kong and encouraged the latter to rethink the colony's future and how to administrate the colony peacefully in the post‐war era.

Aden's Strategic Position in the British Empire and its Relations with the British Raj in India

Aden, a port city in present-day Yemen, held a pivotal position in the British Empire, particularly in relation to British India. Its annexation in 1839 marked the beginning of a period of significant transformation and strategic importance. Aden served as a crucial coaling station, military base, and commercial hub, facilitating British control over maritime routes and regional trade. This paper investigates Aden's integration into the British Empire, its role in British colonial strategy, and its connections with British India, highlighting the intertwined histories and mutual influences. This research paper explores Aden's strategic significance within the British Empire and its intricate relations with British India during the British Raj. The paper delves into Aden's history under British rule, its role as a key military and commercial outpost and the socio-economic and political dynamics that shaped its interactions with British India. By examining primary sources, historical documents and scholarly analyses, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of Aden's place in colonial history and its enduring legacy.

Legitimising Occupation: The Quest for Popular Consent during the British Occupation of Germany, 1945–1949

This article explores the quest for legitimacy and popular consent during the British occupation of north-western Germany between 1945 and 1949. It does so through an analysis of two major propaganda campaigns that sought to publicly legitimise the British occupation at home and in Germany: ‘Germany under Control’, a large-scale exhibition put on display in London in 1946; and ‘Operation Stress’, the largest propaganda campaign in the British Zone, run in 1948 to legitimise food policies. Through an investigation of the internal rationale amongst British policymakers, the objectives behind the campaigns, the popular reception, and the broader outcomes, the article shows that both campaigns ended in failure and did not succeed in convincing the population of the need to maintain British rule in Germany. Propaganda was an ineffective tool to generate popular legitimacy at a time of austerity at home and severe material suffering in the British zone of occupation. As such, the British authorities encountered populations whose ‘moral economy’ and expectations from government were fundamentally opposed to the maintenance of the occupation. Both campaigns, therefore, epitomise the pitfalls of propaganda campaigns when facing bitter social realities and demonstrate the intricacies of the quest for legitimacy during military occupations.

COLONIAL MIZORAM: FOREST PRODUCE AND FARMING METHODS

Frequent raids of areas that the Lushais claimed as their hunting grounds occupied by the British culminated to the creation of the Lushai Hills district under the British rule. Maintenance of public order being the prime concerned, policies relating to forests and fields were sparse allowing traditional patterns of livelihoods to continue almost unchanged. The demand for forest produce was only outside the District as there was no local industries or enterprises that needed raw materials. Trade in forest produce and traders, however, were introduced in this period. Trade permits were issued, Mahal awarded for extraction along the river banks, and minor forest produce were covered by permit and Royalty was collected. Difficult terrain, poor transportation system and shortage of labour were impediments to timber trade. Lack of supervision and management practices rendered the timber traders a free hand, leading to unsystematic felling of trees and damage to productive potential of forest resources. Mizos continued to depend on jhums and local forest resources for livelihood during the whole period of colonial rule. Training of inhabitants to hunt for financial prizes by officials led to the extinction of a number of species. The calls for conservation and forestation was not effective as it was perceived that the hills and jhums land replenished quickly causing no discernible negative impact.

Logistics of the First Anglo-Burma War, 1824–1826

ABSTRACT One of the principal props of British imperialism in South Asia was the British Imperial Army in India. Logistics was important for supplying and transporting the army at the distant theatres to annex new territories and cow down the rebels. The First Anglo–Burma War occurred between the British-Indian Empire and the ruler of Ava in Burma. This conflict, which lasted from 5 March 1824 to 24 February 1826, was an amphibious war. The primary aim of this article is to study the logistics of the British Imperial Army in India, and the secondary objective is to throw some light on the Burmese logistics. An attempt is made in this essay to show the interconnections between ecology, logistics and military organisations of the British-Indian state and Ava. The First Anglo–Burma War can be located at the interface of preindustrial and industrial wars. The animal and human resources of Bengal and Madras presidencies, utilisation of certain indigenous ‘technologies’ (like country boats, rafts, etc.) and technological superiority in gunpowder weapons (both on land and at sea, like gunboats, corned powder, cast iron guns, etc.) enabled the East India Company (EIC) to muddle through and emerge victorious, albeit at a high financial and manpower cost.

Religious origins of nationalist movements: The experience of India and the Sudan

AbstractNationalism in Asia and Africa is generally understood as a modern secular movement for independence. However, this idea is contestable. Analysing nationalism in India and the Sudan, this paper argues that nationalist movements there actually had their origins in Islamic religious resistance against the British colonial rule preceding the development of secular nationalism. Depending on political development following the colonial advancement, the secular elite‐led nationalism also largely fostered religious communal nationalism in India and the Sudan. This substantiates the argument that religion never ceased to play the most central role in the nationalist movements in India and the Sudan. Following an inter‐continental approach to study nationalism, this article explores exclusively the connection between religion and the first ever generic nationalist movements in the context of colonialism in India and the Sudan.

IMPACT OF BRITISH COLONIALISM ON THE ỌDIONWERE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT INSTITUTION IN BENIN KINGDOM, NIGERIA

This study examines the profound impact of British colonialism on the Odionwere conflict management institution in Benin Kingdom, Nigeria. Before the colonial intervention, the Odionwere played a crucial role in resolving disputes and maintaining social harmony within the community. However, the advent of British colonial rule in the late 19th century significantly changed traditional governance structures. The imposition of indirect rule by the British colonial administrators altered the Benin Kingdom’s power dynamics, marginalizing the Odionwere’s authority. The establishment of colonial courts and the introduction of Western legal systems further undermined the traditional conflict resolution mechanisms. This study explores how the Odionwere, once central to dispute resolution, experienced a decline in influence and autonomy as colonial policies reshaped the socio-political landscape. By meticulously analyzing archival documents, oral histories, and ethnographic data, this research contributes to understanding the intricate interplay between colonialism and Indigenous institutions, shedding light on the lasting repercussions of colonial policies on local governance structures and conflict resolution practices in the Benin Kingdom.

Ideologi dan Propaganda dalam Memperkuat Perlawanan di Revolusi Amerika

The American Revolution was a seminal moment in history defined not only by military action but also by the effective use of ideology and propaganda. This research explores the role of Enlightenment ideology and propaganda in strengthening resistance to British colonial rule. Ideas about human rights and government based on the consent of the governed became the philosophical basis for the revolutionary struggle, while propaganda through pamphlets, newspapers, speeches, and visual symbols spread these messages to the wider public. By utilizing effective propaganda, revolutionary leaders succeeded in mobilizing domestic support and attracting international aid, particularly from France. Visual propaganda, such as illustrations of the Boston Massacre and passionate public speeches, played an important role in building solidarity and motivation among the colonists. The findings show that ideology and propaganda are powerful tools in shaping public opinion and mobilizing the masses for revolutionary goals. The American Revolution illustrates how major historical changes often begin with shifts in thought and communication.

Science and indigenous knowledge: the significance of the mātauranga Māori debate

ABSTRACT The debate over the status of mātauranga Māori – the practices and ideas of the first inhabitants of the islands that became known under British colonial rule as New Zealand – has a significance reaching far beyond its shores. The Māori peoples are amongst many indigenous groups globally who found their cultures deprecated by outsiders assuming the role of a governing power. But since the latter part of the twentieth century, arguments for the value of indigenous knowledge have been re-asserted in protest at the perceived dominance of a Western scientific paradigm. Indeed, some defenders of mātauranga Māori want to give it scientific status. Critics reply that mātauranga Māori does not generate genuine knowledge of universals and thus cannot support modern technology. This paper argues that both sides have tended to conflate science with technology, thus treating science as the sovereign standard of all useful knowledge. But not all knowledge must constitute science in order to be worth studying, and science is not wisdom. The paper suggests that recent efforts to give an independent status to indigenous knowledge of the kind that mātauranga Māori represents can be supported by a distinction between ideal types of practical and theoretical knowledge.

Pengaruh Revolusi Amerika Terhadap Pembentukan Identitas Nasional di Amerika Serikat

The American Revolution (1775-1783) was a pivotal event in United States history that ended British colonial rule and initiated the formation of a strong national identity for the new nation. This research aims to explore how the American Revolution contributed to the formation of national identity in the United States. Through historical and contextual analysis, the study identifies key factors such as the influence of Enlightenment ideas, the role of revolutionary figures, and the development of political and cultural institutions that became the foundation of national identity. The study also examines the social and political impacts of the Declaration of Independence and the formation of the United States Constitution, which served as the legal basis and symbol of national unity. The findings show that the American Revolution not only achieved political independence but also inspired values of freedom, egalitarianism, and democracy, which are central to the national identity of the United States. This research provides insights into the historical process of national identity formation and its relevance to contemporary national dynamics.

From rupture to disruptive innovation: the colonial subcontinent’s ‘Devil’s Wind’; the Mughal Bagh (garden) and the English-style public park

ABSTRACT Set against the backdrop of the 1857 uprising against British colonial rule in the Indian subcontinent, the article examines the impact of this tumultuous event on the Mughal era Bagh (garden). The uprising, while causing a sudden and unprecedented rupture in the subcontinent’s political, cultural and urban landscape, also led to a form of disruptive innovation that displaced the well-established Bagh, a private space for leisure or veneration of the deceased, by a novel garden type, an English-style public park. More often than not, this new garden type emerged from remodelling the Bagh, to result in a Bagh-turned-Public Park. This innovative venture not only physically replaced the original Bagh but also changed the notion of leisure from the Mughal-to-the-metropole-inspired variant. Concurrently, this landscape endeavour served the agenda of empire to stamp British authority. To make its case, the city of Delhi, whose large corpus of Mughal- era Baghs underwent remodelling, is selected. As the epicentre of the uprising, Delhi was the recipient of the colonial regime’s spatially tumultuous military and civic interventions to turn it into a tamed modern city, among whose new spatial icons was the English-style public park. Two gardens are examined to demonstrate the rupture and disruptive innovation, as colonial civic actors overlaid an English-style landscape on the Bagh. This seemingly innocuous landscape intervention was as disruptive and efficacious as its spatially violent military counterpart in transforming Delhi into a colonial modern city. The article concludes by taking stock of the Bagh-turned-Public Park in the present as a colonial legacy that continues to be an integral part of the leisure landscape of Indian cities.

AVIATION IN INDIA: A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

The history of commercial aviation transport in India started under British rule in the late 1920s. Soon an Indian entrepreneur J.R.D. Tata ventured into commercial aviation to promote Tata Airlines in 1932. In the inter-war period between World War I and World War II, the British Imperial Government viewed air transport as a strategic asset and enterprising promoters (both Europeans and Indians) saw an opportunity for profitable investment. The interests of imperial state and finance capital converged in the emergence of air transport in Asia as elsewhere. After India’s independence from colonial rule in 1947, there was a shift in government policy toward economic protectionism to shield Indian aviation industry from foreign competitions. Republican India nationalized the aviation industry in 1953. In so doing, this study adds to the existing scholarship related to the business history of South Asia and transport history.

Racism and Colonialism in Foster’s A Passage to India: A Critical Discourse Analysis

The major concern of this research work is to analyze the concepts related to racism and the aftermaths of British colonial rule in India taking into consideration a very distinctive and remarkable work, A Passage to India (1924) by E.M. Forster in which these contemporary issues are discussed. Racism along with the colonialism has been a very integral part of the past and our society which this current study aims to explore. The qualitative method has been employed in this research and for this reason the present research paper is split into two major sections: The first portion investigates the meaning of racism along with colonialism and how people were treated discriminately during the colonial rule of mid of 19th century. The second section explores the concept of racism and colonialism according to E.M. Forster and the societal conditions in which he produced his work. The finding of present study shows that racism and colonialism creates the hatred between the oppressed and the oppressor, people belonging to the oppressors’ league enjoy more opportunities as compared to the oppressed ones and develops various limitations which lead to the creation of discrimination among the people belonging to different races.

(UN) COVERING KARACHI: THE CREATION OF A BRITISH VISUAL LANGUAGE IN SINDH

Karachi, a city of 14000 people, was evolving as an important port for strategic geopolitical reasons and increasing trade at the time of the British conquest in 1843. However, it was not equipped with the infrastructure — such as an all-weather port — required for its continued economic progress. The fort town had a Chabutra (Custom House), shrines, temples, and caravanserais interspersed among the large havelis and houses of Hindu merchants and government functionaries. Neither the fort nor the Chabutra survived British colonial rule in Sindh. In fact, in keeping with their plans for the city, the British demolished these structures fairly early on in their rule of Sindh. The subsequent establishment of British institutions and political infrastructure was reinforced by the construction of buildings and monuments that looked distinctly European in style. This was not only because of the architectural styles employed in these buildings but also in the choice of ornamentation. For example, by patronizing artisans that were well versed in stone engravings and sculpture making, the British shifted attention away from the art of traditional frescoes, painting, and glazed tiles. This paper explores how the Occident imported architectural and visual cultural styles and forms into their colonies to create an entirely new visual language for their colonized subjects in South Asia. It argues that this was done deliberately to ensure political legitimacy in the eyes of their subjects as well as to highlight their own cultural superiority. The lack of native creative expression and the emergence of the modernist movement eventually led to their disappearance from structures built after Independence. This was a colonial project deeply entrenched in discourses of racism and inequality. Keywords: Colonial Architecture, Hegemony, Tradition, Architectural Movements, Colonialism

ROLE OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION IN WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The Indian Constitution is a beautiful blend of both federal and unitary systems. The Indian Constitution is called a federal constitution on the basis that it is a written constitution. It provides for a supreme and independent judiciary. The preamble of the Indian Constitution declares the goal of making India a democratic republic. Its head of state will be elected democratically. Being a republic means that any common person of India, whether a man or a woman, can reach the highest position in the country on the basis of his qualifications. India is a union of states. It is an independent sovereign socialist democratic republic with a parliamentary system of government. This republic is governed according to the Constitution of India which was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949 and which came into force on 26 January 1950. The Constitution of India is the supreme legal authority that links together the legislative, executive and judicial organs of the government. The Constitution provides fundamental rights to all citizens and gives the independent judiciary the right to declare invalid the laws or government actions that violate the Constitution. In the Vedic period, women had a very respectable position in India. But later in the medieval period, the status of women deteriorated a lot due to the arrival of foreigners. Due to illiteracy, bad customs and conservatism in the society, the status of women was greatly affected. But gradually in the first half of the nineteenth century, some social workers of India like Raja Ram Mahen Rai, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Ishwarchand Vidyasagar and Keshavchand Sen raised their voice against the oppressive social system. They raised their voice before the then British rulers for gender equality, women education, ban on Sati Pratha and ban on polygamy, as a result of which Sati Pratha Prohibition Act, 1829 and Hindu Widow Remarriage Act in 1856, Age of Constancy Bill in 1891 and Vative Marriage Act to stop polygamy were passed. By the twenty-first century, the condition of women started improving and the Indian Constitution implemented provisions to promote women's upliftment and empowerment and to improve their economic, social, educational and political status and to include them in the mainstream of development by running many welfare schemes and developmental works.

STYLISTIC ANALYSIS OF EARLY 20TH CENTURY ARCHITECTURE OF IMPERIAL CITY

Calcutta’s established role as India’s premier city from 1774 was increasingly questioned due to its climate and geographic location particularly in the context of British governance and control. By 1857, during the Mutiny, the limitations of Calcutta as the capital became evident, leading Viscount Canning to relocate the British administration to Allahabad. The debate over relocating the capital continued, culminating in 1911 with Hardinge’s proposal to move it to Delhi. This move was seen as a strategic and symbolic shift, with Delhi’s central location and historical significance making it an ideal choice to represent British imperial power. The decision to build a new capital in Delhi, designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens, was driven by the desire to create a city that embodied both the grandeur of British rule and the historical continuity of India's ancient capitals Jain (1991). Lutyens’ design, characterized by grand processional avenues, monumental plazas, and imposing facades, was intended to project a vision of peaceful dominance and dignified governance. The new city, initially called Imperial Delhi, aimed to reflect the achievements of British rule and serve as a backdrop befitting an empire of Rome’s magnitude. This paper examines the architectural and symbolic values embedded in Lutyens’ design for Imperial Delhi, focusing on its grandiose urban elements and their intended impact. It also explores how contemporary interventions have altered this historic urban landscape, reshaping the legacy of what was envisioned as a majestic symbol of British imperialism. Through this analysis, the paper seeks to understand the evolving significance of Delhi's architectural heritage and its transformation in the modern era.

СОЦИАЛЬНЫЙ СОСТАВ ГОСУДАРСТВА БАБУРА В ИНДИИ

Zakhiriddin Muhammad Babur, a descendant of the Timurids, known as a poet, writer, historian, commander, head of state, founded the Mughal Empire in India, which lasted 300 years. During the reign of Babur and his descendants, the social structure of the state was complex and had a large number of different classes.

From Partition To Abrogation: Tracing the History of Article 370

Kashmir isn’t “just another city” or just another place that exists on earth. It is a place described by the famous poet Amir Khusrau in the following words, “Gar Firdaus Bar Ruhe Zamin ast, Hamin asto, Hamin asto, Hamin ast….” Which when translated, means, “if there is Paradise on earth, it is here, it is here, it is here…..” The place was once compared to the paradise .The region had been choice of many British officials for their holidays in the British raj period and it remained a frequent location for film shootings by many directors in the 80s and 90s. However, apart from being a great tourist attraction with amazing scenic valley, it also holds a long and painful history of political instability during the latter half of 20th century. The troubles began for Kashmir since the partition of India was proposed and it took a long line of governments and thousands of lives in pursue of the solution to its troubles. This article is an analysis to understand and highlight all the turbulence that valley of Kashmir went through from partition to present day. We will see phase to phase developments that took place in Kashmir from the time of partition to formation of Article 370 and its abrogation along with its impact on the nation in general and the state in particular.

The role of the labor movements in the colonial spaces: trade unionism in Palestine and Lebanon in the colonial era (1920-1948)

ABSTRACT This article aims to demonstrate how the working class evolved and was organised in Palestine and Lebanon between 1920 and 1948. Palestine and Lebanon, which share characteristics such as being a part of the Ottoman Empire and being governed by mandates, also share similar experiences in combating sectarianism based on nationality or religion. The establishment of British rule in Palestine and French administration in Lebanon after World War I also influenced the trade union movement in these two countries: Nationalism flourished, trade unions became tools of politics, and the divide and rule policy of the colonial administration made organization difficult. Although these administrations were referred to as ‘mandates’ of the League of Nations, they actually experienced a colonization process and its effects similar to those in Africa. In this study, particularly the concept of colonization will be used, and the activities of trade unions in colonial regions will be examined through two Middle Eastern countries. While the Palestinian trade unions, which struggled against both British colonization and settler colonialism, were effective in preserving Palestinian identity, the Lebanese trade unions, dealing with French colonization as well as sectarianism, also managed to significantly preserve working-class unity.