Breeding Behavior Research Articles

Comparison of nest site selection in Mute Swan Cygnus olor and the expanding Whooper Swan Cygnus cygnus

The warming climate is giving migratory birds new opportunities to extend their breeding ranges. These expansions may have a significant impact on other local bird communities. Here, we investigate the nest site selection of Mute Swan Cygnus olor, and the expanding Whooper Swan Cygnus cygnus. The study aims to assess the differences in habitat use by these two swan species in a lowland anthropogenic landscape. It examines the number of breeding pairs and the surface areas of nesting zones in different habitat types. The field procedures involved the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to survey and locate nests, with geotagged photographs taken to map nest locations. Our results show that Mute Swans primarily occupy oxbows, while Whooper Swans predominantly nest in pond complexes. Moreover, GLM models indicate that Mute Swans tend to choose open areas within a radius of 200 m around the nests, whereas Whooper Swans avoid built-up areas, often choosing forested sites within a radius of 500 m of their nests. These findings suggest that the expansion of the Whooper Swan population has led to changes in the breeding behaviour and habitat use of sympatric Mute Swan populations. The territorial behaviour and aggression of Whooper Swan may be driving Mute Swan away from fishpond habitats. We conclude that interactions between the two swan species are dynamic and have not yet stabilized, so this is an issue that needs to be closely monitored. Understanding these dynamics is essential for the effective conservation and management of wetland habitats in the face of ongoing climate change and shifting breeding ranges of birds.

Oriental pied hornbills (Anthracoceros albirostris) solve invisible displacement tasks in a test of Piagetian object permanence.

Object permanence, the ability to mentally represent objects even when they are not directly accessible to the senses, is of vital importance for the survival of both human and non-human animals. The Oriental pied hornbill (Anthracoceros albirostris) is an Asian species of hornbill displaying remarkable adaptability in various environments, yet little is known about their cognitive abilities. Their breeding behaviour is unique, as the female hornbill seals herself inside a cavity before laying eggs and the male feeds her and their offspring without visual contact, strongly suggesting the presence of object permanence to some degree. In this study, six Oriental pied hornbills underwent testing for object permanence, including a series of seven standard Piagetian tasks involving visible and invisible displacements. The subjects consistently demonstrated spontaneous object permanence in all stages leading up to the invisible displacement stage. Half of the subjects achieved full stage 6 double invisible displacement Piagetian object permanence, while the other half reached stage 5 double visible displacement. Breeding behaviour and the duration of developmental stages are proposed as potential factors influencing object permanence ability in this species of hornbill.

Breeding biology and behaviour of the Pacific Baza Aviceda subcristata in subtropical coastal New South Wales

The breeding biology and behaviour of predominantly two pairs of Pacific Bazas Aviceda subcristata were studied in subtropical north-eastern New South Wales from 2007 to 2017, with intensive observations in 2010–2012 (442.5 h). Fifteen breeding attempts were documented: eleven from observed nest sites, and four from observations of dependent juveniles. The pre-laying period occupied late August and September, with nest building taking 6–19 days. The mean incubation period was 31 days, usually from early October to early November. Both male and female shared diurnal incubation (Pair 1: male 42%, female 58%, only the female incubated overnight; Pair 2: male 62%, female 38%, sharing overnight incubation). The mean nestling period was 37.5 days, including a brooding period of 9–14 days. Breeding productivity was 1.87–2.0 fledglings/attempt (n = 15) across all sites combined. Fledging generally occurred in December, but on two occasions occurred in mid–late February. The post-fledging dependence period lasted at least 22 days, with juveniles joining flocks of other broods in the area at c. 40 days, and leaving the study area c. 45–60 days after fledging. Delivered prey was predominantly insects, especially cicadas (Hemiptera: Cicadoidea) and phasmatids (Phasmatodea: Phasmatidae) by number, and tree frogs Litoria spp. by biomass. Bazas brought prey at a mean rate of 1.2 items/h/juvenile (nestling and post-fledging periods combined), with juvenile intake estimated at 7.6 g/h/juvenile. Various behaviours – nest building, vocalisations, inter- and intraspecific interactions and their frequencies and contexts, and changes in juvenile morphology through the post-fledging period – are described for the years 2010–2012.

Oral administration of GnRH via a cricket vehicle stimulates spermiation in tiger salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum).

More than 50% of caudates are threatened with extinction and are in need of ex-situ breeding programs to support conservation efforts and species recovery. Unfortunately, many salamander populations under human care can experience reproductive failure, primarily due to missing environmental cues necessary for breeding. Assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) are a useful suite of techniques for overcoming or bypassing these missing environmental cues to promote breeding. Exogenous hormones are used to stimulate natural breeding behaviors or gamete expression for in-vitro fertilization or biobanking and are typically administered intramuscularly in caudates. While effective, intramuscular injection is risky to perform in smaller-bodied animals, resulting in health and welfare risks. This research investigated the spermiation response to hormone administration through a non-invasive oral bioencapsulation route using the tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) as a model species. Male salamanders were randomly rotated six weeks apart through four treatments (n = 11 males/treatment) in which animals received a resolving dose of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) as follows: (1) Prime-Only (0.0 μg/g); (2) Low (0.25 μg/g); (3) Medium (1.0 μg/g); and (4) High (2.0 μg/g). All males were given a GnRH priming dose (0.25 μg/g) 24 hours prior to the resolving dose. Exogenous hormone was delivered inside of a cricket (Gryllodes sigillatus) that was presented as a food item by tweezers. Sperm samples were collected at 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, and 24 hours after the resolving dose and analyzed for quantity and quality. For all treatments, sperm concentration was produced in an episodic pattern over time. The Prime-Only treatment had a lower (p < 0.05) percent of sperm exhibiting normal morphology compared to treatments utilizing a resolving dose of GnRH. Overall, oral administration of GnRH is a feasible route of inducing spermiation in salamanders, yielding sperm of sufficient quantity and quality for in-vitro fertilization and biobanking efforts.

Life History of the Andean Condor in Ecuador

Background and Research Aims: Little information exists on the breeding behavior of the Andean Condor ( Vultur gryphus). Its global population, estimated at 6700 adult individuals, is declining throughout its distribution range. With less than 150 condors, the Endangered condor population in Ecuador is of conservation concern. This study aimed to analyze the breeding behavior of wild-born Andean Condors in Ecuador. Methods: Between 2009 and 2021, we monitored 22 egg-laying attempts in eight Andean Condor nests, evaluated the parental care of three breeding pairs of condors and recorded the species' interactions with other raptors and mammals during the nestling-rearing season, and examined the breeding success of an Andean Condor pair during a decade of monitoring. Results: Our breeding records indicated that Andean Condor lay eggs throughout the year, and 16 nestlings spent between six and 10 months in the nest before making their first flights. We found differences in the length of time that the parents remain with the nestling, and described agonistic encounters between condors and other raptors and a Spectacled Bear ( Tremarctos ornatus) in the condor nesting areas. The breeding success of the monitored condor pair was 0.88 nestlings per clutch, and the female laid an egg on average every 15 months. Conclusion: Considering the small size of the Andean Condor population in Ecuador, studies on the breeding behavior of wild-born condors are a high research priority to assess population trends and prevent extinction. Specifically, we recommend further research on parental care, breeding success, nestling survivorship, and nesting phenology. Implications for Conservation: Beyond the importance of the protected area system, strategic planning of key areas for the maintenance of condor populations in the northern Andes must encompass the evaluation of new potential protected areas that offer direct benefits to these birds. These should include nesting sites in human-dominated landscapes such as rural Andean areas.

Long-term Decline of the Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma maculatum) in an Undeveloped Landscape

Abstract The Eastern Hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis) is a giant, charismatic species of salamander of conservation concern. Despite growing interest in their breeding behavior, significant gaps remain in our understanding of hellbender reproduction, particularly the behavior occurring immediately prior to and during breeding, as these activities typically occur within the nesting cavity and out of view. In this study, we used custom-built infrared cameras installed underwater in artificial nesting shelters to record pre-breeding behaviors, complete mating sequences, and failed mating attempts in eleven shelters. Using these recordings, we describe the basic mating sequence, the presence of potential alternative mating tactics, and two novel behaviors, including possible signal production via wave-based communication and unique egg laying behavior by female hellbenders. These findings add to our understanding of hellbenders&amp;#x92; life history as well as informing conservation efforts in both captive and wild environments.

A systematic global review of mammalian carnivore responses to production forests

Abstract Unmodified forests are increasingly rare worldwide, with forestry a major contributor to habitat modification. Extending conservation practices beyond protected areas is important to conserve forest ecosystems. We investigate the response of native mammalian carnivores (both Order Carnivora and Family Dasyuridae) to production forests globally, including harvested native forest and timber plantations. We examine how carnivores recorded in production forests use these forests versus other land uses, particularly native and/or unharvested forest; how habitat use relates to threatened status, body size, diet and harvesting method; carnivore responses to habitat features within production forests; and carnivore denning, breeding and predation behaviour in production forests. We review 294 studies recording 132 carnivore species in production forests. Carnivores generally show higher use of unharvested native forests and lower use of agricultural land than production forests. Threatened species and large carnivores respond more negatively to production forests than non‐threatened species and small carnivores respectively. Hypercarnivores respond more negatively than omnivores to plantations compared to native forest, with no difference in the use of harvested and unharvested native forest between these dietary groups. Notably, a high proportion of carnivore species use clearfelled more than unharvested native forest. In forest with partial harvesting or reduced‐impact logging, most species show no difference in use between harvested and unharvested forest. Carnivores generally respond positively to habitat features such as riparian areas and coarse woody debris. Several carnivores were recorded denning and breeding in production forests. Production forests often influence the prey availability, hunting success and diet of carnivores. We show that many carnivores use production forests, and how they respond to production forestry varies with species traits and conservation status. We recommend that production forests are managed as valuable carnivore habitat, and highlight strategies to enhance the use of these forests by carnivores.

The Influence of Subjective Norms on Farmers' Behavior in Handling Goat Waste

Waste treatment (WT) was one way to increase the income of small-scale goat farmers. Many factors influence breeders to adopt technology, including the subjective norm (SN) factor. This study aims to determine the effect of subjective norms (SN) consisting of the influence of informal leaders (IL), Family (F), extension (E) /Training Officer (TO), and peer groups (FG) or farmer neighbors (FN) on the behavior of farmers in feces waste treatment (WT). The research was carried out in West Sulawesi Province, precisely in Polman and the Majene Regencies, which were goat farming centers. The respondents were 50 in the Majene district and 100 in the Polman district. The determination of the sample was carried out randomly at the location of the goat breeding center (GBC). The research variable consisted of the behavior of farmers in adopting technology (AT), which consisted of five levels: feces disposed of (score 1), not processed and used alone (score 2), not processed and sold (score 3), processed and used alone (score 4). It was processed and sold (score 5). Independent variables consisted of subjective norms, including the Community Leader (CL) (X1), Family (F) (X2), Extension Workers (EW) or Technical Officers (X3), and Neighbors (N) or colleagues (C) influence (X4). The linear regression model was used to predict the F-test and t-test. The results showed that SN affects breeders’ behavior in processing goat livestock waste (GLW). The variable influence of EW, F, and N was a component of SN that influenced the behavior of breeders, to increase the adoption of WT technology, the role of EW must be increased in assisting farmers in adopting WT technology. Keywords: Goat, subjective norm, adoption, extension officer, Family member

Ethogram of the Chinese Giant Salamander during the Breeding Period Based on the PAE Coding System

The PAE (Posture-Act-Environment) coding system is a behavior coding system that divides the study of animal behavior into postures, actions, and the corresponding environmental factors, and they are coded correspondingly. It determines the analysis dimension to standardize the study of behavior. To investigate the behavior of A. davidianus during the breeding period, as well as their related postures, actions, and required environmental conditions, this study monitored the behavior of four pairs of A. davidianus in a simulated natural breeding pool using an infrared image monitoring system and recorded the changes in water quality during this process using a water quality monitoring system. The process of reproductive behaviors was observed and recorded with the random sampling method and the focal animal sampling method to classify and code the behaviors, and the ethogram of A. davidianus during the breeding period was constructed based on the PAE coding system. The result showed that 10 postures, 33 actions, 11 environments, and 45 behavioral patterns were differentiated and defined, which were classified into 9 categories of behaviors according to the behavioral function. Among these categories, five were distinguished as behaviors unique to the reproductive period, which include sand pushing, showering, courtship, oviposition, and parental care. The remaining four categories were daily behaviors: exercise, feeding, rest, and miscellaneous behaviors. The quantitative data on water quality and habitat factors that had a significant impact on the behavior of A. davidianus, such as water temperature (WT), pH, and dissolved oxygen (DO), were included in the coding framework, which more accurately expresses the environmental conditions and thresholds required for the breeding behavior.

Natal dispersal, philopatry and cooperative breeding in Eastern Yellow Robin Eopsaltria australis

ABSTRACT Delayed natal dispersal is thought to have evolved in response to survival benefits of philopatry and group formation under environmental and/or demographic constraints, with kin selection subsequently promoting the emergence of cooperative breeding behaviours. We studied sociality and natal and breeding dispersal of a colour-banded population of Eastern Yellow Robin Eopsaltria australis over 10 years to better understand the evolution of facultative cooperative breeding in this long-lived, territorial songbird. Breeding group size averaged 3.08 (range 2–6) adults and 82% of helpers were males. All male young delayed dispersal to help one or both parents (82.1%), another first order relative (12.5%) or other relatives (5.4%) for between one and four years before establishing as a dominant breeder. The social relationships of female helpers was confirmed in only two instances, with the helper being the daughter of the breeding pair. Helpers significantly increased annual productivity, which averaged 1.44 (95% confidence intervals: 1.07–1.81) with no helpers and 2.04 (95% confidence intervals: 1.74–2.34) with helpers present. Male young were highly philopatric; most either inherited the natal territory or budded off a portion of the natal territory, and none dispersed more than one territory away. Most females appeared to disperse further after reaching independence to become floaters. Breeding dispersal was limited to females, who dispersed after either divorce or to avoid incest once a son inherited the territory. These results confirm that Eastern Yellow Robin helpers likely gain indirect fitness benefits from helping.

COVID-related anthropause highlights the impact of marine traffic but not of tourism on breeding little penguins

The COVID-19 pandemic and its lock-down measures have resulted in periods of reduced human activity, known as anthropause. While this period was expected to be favorable for the marine ecosystem, due to a probable reduction of pollution, shipping traffic, industrial activity and fishing pressure, negative counterparts such as reduced fisheries surveillance could counterbalance these positive effects. Simultaneously, on-land pressure due to human disturbance and tourism should have drastically decreased, potentially benefiting land-breeding marine animals such as seabirds. We analyzed 11 breeding seasons of data on several biological parameters of little penguins from a popular tourist attraction at Phillip Island, Australia. We investigated the impact of anthropogenic activities on penguin behavior during the breeding season measured by (1) distribution at sea, (2) colony attendance, (3) isotopic niche (4) chick meal mass, and (5) offspring investment against shipping traffic and number of tourists. The 2020 lock-downs resulted in a near absence of tourists visiting the Penguin Parade®, which was otherwise visited by 800,000+ visitors on average per breeding season. However, our long-term analysis showed no effect of the presence of visitors on little penguins' activities. Surprisingly, the anthropause did not trigger any changes in maritime traffic intensity and distribution in the region. We found inter- and intra-annual variations for most parameters, we detected a negative effect of marine traffic on the foraging efficiency. Our results suggest that environmental variations have a greater influence on the breeding behavior of little penguins compared to short-term anthropause events. Our long-term dataset was key to test whether changes in anthropogenic activities affected the wildlife during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The causes and implications of sex role diversity in shorebird breeding systems

Males and females often exhibit different behaviours during mate acquisition, pair‐bonding and parenting, and a convenient label to characterize these behaviours is sex role. The diverse roles that male and female shorebirds (plovers, sandpipers and allies) exhibit in mating and parenting have played a key role in advancing mainstream theories in avian ecology and behavioural biology including sexual selection, sexual conflict and parental cooperation. Recent advances in shorebird research have also highlighted the significance of the social environment in driving sex role behaviours by linking the adult sex ratio with breeding behaviour and population demography. Here we review the key advances in sex role research using shorebirds as an ecological model system. We identify knowledge gaps and argue that shorebirds have untapped potential to accelerate diverse research fields including evolutionary genomics, movement ecology, social networks and environmental changes. Future studies of sex roles will benefit from individual‐based monitoring using advanced tracking technologies, and from multi‐team collaborations that are facilitated by standardized data collection methodologies across different species in the field. These advances will not only contribute to our understanding of reproductive strategies, but they will also have knock‐on effects on predicting population resilience to environmental changes and on prioritizing species for conservation.

Ecology Of Bengal Fox (Vulpes Bengalensis) In Northwest Bangladesh

The northwest regions of Bangladesh belong to the global range of Bengal fox, Vulpes bengalensis. However, scientific information on this small canid in Bangladesh is scanty; it also remains out of any conservation initiatives, and it is widely perceived as a potential threat to local poultry. We conducted this premier study between September 2019 and December 2021. We investigated the feeding and breeding behaviour of this fox by using scat samples, direct field surveys and camera-trapping. An analysis of 67 scats yielded eight major categories of prey items consumed by the fox. Arthropods (29%) ranked top in the relative percentage of occurrence, followed by rodents (27%), plant parts (17%), and birds (13%), among the others. Ninety-two percent of scats contained multiple food items, with an average number of food items per scat of 3.50± SE 1.87. We recorded 17 den sites in and around human-dominated landscapes, of which nine den sites remained unoccupied during the entire study period. Dens used by Bengal foxes were complex, comprising interconnected tunnels and holes with an average of 23.66± SD 12.78 holes/den. We estimated a total of 37 individuals of the fox, with 62% pups in the recorded population. The average litter size was 3.36± SE 0.52 pups. We recommend further research to assess population status and delineate its range in Bangladesh. Bangladesh J. Zool. 51(1): 35-45, 2023

The use of drone to study the nesting behavior of milky stork: Some preliminary observations

Abstract. Mardiastuti A, Mulyani YA, Akbar A, Wicaksono B, Rahmawati T, Wulandari YP, Warsajaya. 2023. The use of drone to study the nesting behavior of milky stork: Some preliminary observations. Biodiversitas 24: 4549-4557. The use of a drone to census waterbirds has been increasingly popular. However, study on the waterbird’s behavioral response to the drone was still limited. The objective of this study is to reveal the response of the breeding milky stork Mycteria cinerea to the drone as a new and safer tool for collecting breeding behavior data. Factors that influence the success of the observation by using a drone were also identified and a set of recommendations was formulated. The research was conducted during the breeding season of the milky stork in Pulau Rambut, a small island in Jakarta Bay, between December 2022 and March 2023. Three types of drones were tested in the pilot study, and eventually, a small manually piloted drone (Syma X25 Pro) was found to be more appropriate for behavioral study. The bird response to the drone (no, neutral, temporary, negative response) was observed through a combination of various distances and angles of the drone to the nest trees. Despite the weather obstacles, this study suggested that the milky stork mostly (17 out of 20 trials) showed no response or neutral response to the drone. Some temporary responses were detected due to some accidental events, including a sudden launch of the drone. In conclusion, a small-size, easy-to-maneuver drone that produces low noise and mild wind can be used by using a manual pilot mode to study the breeding behavior of milky storks or other similar waterbird species.

Breeding system in Olea ferruginea Royle (Oleaceae): comparative performance of staminate and perfect flowers in reproductive assurance

ABSTRACT Olea ferruginea, a wild widely distributed species of the olive lineage, exhibits andromonoecy with protogynous perfect (hermaphrodite) and staminate (male) flowers. The present communication elucidates the differential performance of staminate and perfect flowers in reproductive assurance. The flowering chronology and function of perfect and staminate flowers in the breeding system were investigated to understand the breeding behavior of the species. In terms of breeding behavior, pollen from staminate and perfect flowers was used to establish their role in breeding system under different pollination treatments. Results indicate higher pollen viability, germination, and pollen tube growth of staminate than perfect flowers. Results from pollen counts and morphological investigations show slight differences in both types. The species is self-incompatible which is indicated by pollen germination, the average number of pollen tubes in the style, and the fruit set following self and cross-pollination. Hand cross-pollination improves natural fruit set, especially when pollen from staminate flowers was used. Although the relict role of attracting pollinators cannot be fully discarded, it is suggested that the main benefit supplied by the formation of staminate flowers in olives is to promote male fitness by raising pollen output at the population level.

Maleo Conservation Development by Local Communities: A Case Study of PT Pertamina Patra Niaga Fuel Terminal Poso’s CSR Program in Sumara Jaya Village

Maleo is one of the most interesting and unique endemic birds in Sulawesi Tengah, Indonesia. This bird is known for its exciting and unique breeding behavior. Maleo belongs to the family Megapodiidae. According to the Regulations of the Minister (PERMEN) of the Environment and Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia (KLHK), no. P.20/MENLHK/SETJEN/KUM.I/6/2018 regarding the protected species of plants and animals, the maleo bird is designated as a protected animal. The research was carried out at a Maleo bird conservation site located in Sumara Jaya village in Morowali Utara district, Province of Sulawesi Utara, Indonesia. Conservation of maleo birds is not other than one of the CSR programs of PT Pertamina Patra Niaga Fuel Terminal Poso in cooperation with BKSDA Sulawesi Tengah through the Seksi Konservasi Wilayah II Poso. The aim of this research is to find out the shape and level of participation of the local community in the conservation program of Maleo in the village of Sumara Jaya. The results of this study show that there are three people from the local community in the village of Sumara Jaya who are actively engaged as robbers in the Pertamina Bersama Maleo program. They play a role in monitoring the nest and protecting the habitat.

High-resolution GPS Tracking of American Kestrels Reveals Breeding and Post-Breeding Ranging Behavior in Northern Virginia, USA

ABSTRACT Long-term monitoring data indicate a persistent decline in American Kestrel populations across North America. Loss or alteration of habitat have been listed as potential causal factors, but basic information on kestrel space use, including breeding home range size, is lacking. No study has provided robust estimates of the ranging behavior of breeding kestrels based on tracking data of any resolution. We fitted 19 adult female kestrels with solar-powered GPS transmitters during the incubation period in northern Virginia. High-resolution tracking began during the early nestling stage for 17 birds. We collected an average of 1710 locations per bird through the end of the breeding season (31 August), with 13 birds tracked through the fledging of their young. Autocorrelated kernel density home range estimation showed that female kestrels used breeding home ranges that were smaller (average: 0.32 km2) than most previously published range sizes. Home ranges did not vary significantly in size across breeding stages and demonstrated little overlap with the ranges of neighboring kestrels. Five females shifted their territories in the post-breeding stage (i.e., after disappearance or dispersal of fledglings) between 1.5 and 12.3 km from their nest box; they maintained these new ranges at least to the migration period. We also documented home range excursion forays (n = 128) by all 12 consistently tracked females. Mean (4.0 km) and maximum (127.7 km) foray distances were some of the largest reported among birds and mammals relative to home range size. Weekly foray rates were highest during the nestling stage, and for birds that ultimately shifted from their breeding home range. The existence of long-distance foray behavior and the use of multiple summer home ranges, both shown here for the first time for this species, has a direct impact on interpretation of kestrel nest-site and habitat selection data, and on the assessment of potential threats to this species in the breeding season.

Seasonal variation in the diurnal activity pattern of Eurasian blackbirds (Turdus merula) in the forest

Camera traps are increasingly used to estimate the density of animals as well as their activity patterns. As camera traps allow monitoring of animals over long periods of time without disturbance, they are especially useful to observe changes in diurnal activity patterns over time. In ornithology, camera trapping is still in its infancy. To our knowledge, no study has yet investigated the activity pattern of a songbird over the full annual cycle. We used camera traps in the Rammert, a small mountainous forest area near Rottenburg in Southwest Germany to monitor the diurnal activity pattern of forest-dwelling Eurasian blackbirds (Turdus merula). As the activity level of animals is known to be affected by day light, we used double-anchoring transformation of day times to account for the variation in sunrise and sunset across the different seasons. By generating activity models, we investigated the pattern of blackbird activity during the four seasons of the year and compared the patterns of male and female birds, respectively. A significant difference between a unimodal activity pattern in spring and a bimodal pattern for the rest of the year was found which might be related to breeding and territorial behaviour in spring. Moreover, we observed that the activity pattern of males and females overlapped greatly but still showed some variation in the number and timing of density peaks.

Genetic resources and breeding approaches for improvement of amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa).

Nowadays, the human population is more concerned about their diet and very specific in choosing their food sources to ensure a healthy lifestyle and avoid diseases. So people are shifting to more smart nutritious food choices other than regular cereals and staple foods they have been eating for a long time. Pseudocereals, especially, amaranth and quinoa, are important alternatives to traditional cereals due to comparatively higher nutrition, essential minerals, amino acids, and zero gluten. Both Amaranchaceae crops are low-input demanding and hardy plants tolerant to stress, drought, and salinity conditions. Thus, these crops may benefit developing countries that follow subsistence agriculture and have limited farming resources. However, these are underutilized orphan crops, and the efforts to improve them by reducing their saponin content remain ignored for a long time. Furthermore, these crops have very rich variability, but the progress of their genetic gain for getting high-yielding genotypes is slow. Realizing problems in traditional cereals and opting for crop diversification to tackle climate change, research should be focused on the genetic improvement for low saponin, nutritionally rich, tolerant to biotic and abiotic stresses, location-specific photoperiod, and high yielding varietal development of amaranth and quinoa to expand their commercial cultivation. The latest technologies that can accelerate the breeding to improve yield and quality in these crops are much behind and slower than the already established major crops of the world. We could learn from past mistakes and utilize the latest trends such as CRISPR/Cas, TILLING, and RNA interference (RNAi) technology to improve these pseudocereals genetically. Hence, the study reviewed important nutrition quality traits, morphological descriptors, their breeding behavior, available genetic resources, and breeding approaches for these crops to shed light on future breeding strategies to develop superior genotypes.

Seasonal Variation in Gut Microbiota of the Wild Daurian Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus dauricus): Metagenomic Insights into Seasonal Breeding.

The Spermophilus dauricus, the wild Daurian ground squirrel, is known to exhibit seasonal breeding behavior. Although the importance of gut microbiota in animal digestion, metabolism, and immunity is well-established, the correlation between gut microbiota and seasonal breeding in this species remains inadequately explored. In the present study, using metagenomic sequencing technology, the compositions and functions of the gut microbiota of wild Daurian ground squirrels in different breeding seasons were explored. The dominant gut microbial phyla were Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. The Firmicutes were predominant in the breeding season, whereas Bacteroidetes were predominant in the non-breeding season. At the genus level, Lactobacillus accumulated during the breeding season, whereas Odoribacter and Alistipes increased during the non-breeding season. GO (Gene Ontology) and KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genome) annotations indicated that genes in gut samples were highly associated with metabolic functions. The differential expression gene analysis showed that genes related to the phosphotransferase system, cysteine, and methionine metabolism were highly expressed during the breeding season, whereas the non-breeding season upregulated genes were enriched in starch and sucrose metabolism and bacterial chemotaxis pathways. In conclusion, this study could provide a reference for investigating gut microbiota in seasonal breeding animals and offer new insight into gut microbial function.