Breakfast Composition Research Articles

A randomised crossover trial of nitrate and breakfast on prefrontal cognitive and haemodynamic response functions

It remains unknown whether dietary nitrate and breakfast may enhance working memory (WM) performance by augmenting physiological mechanisms and subjective psychological well-being. We performed a 3-arm randomised within-subject crossover study, with pretest-posttest comparisons, to test whether nitrate consumption via breakfast with a beetroot juice shot or regular breakfast compared to no breakfast improved WM (measured with n-back tests) and cognitive task-related changes in prefrontal cortical haemodynamic response (oxygenated- and deoxygenated-haemoglobin derived from functional near-infrared spectroscopy). In addition, effects on peripheral vascular function and self-reported psychological factors were assessed. In 60 adolescents (13–15 years old; 66% girls), WM improved in all conditions, with no intervention effects. Intervention effects were seen for oxygenated-haemoglobin changes, such that it increased after the breakfast with a nitrate shot during the WM tests and decreased after the regular breakfast. Thus, different neurophysiological mechanisms may be at play to preserve WM in adolescents depending on their breakfast composition. The trial was registered in the ISRCTN registry (ISRCTN16596056) on 21/02/2022.

The Association between Breakfast Macronutrient Composition and Body Weight, in Preadolescence: An Epidemiological Study among Schoolchildren.

Over the last few decades, childhood overweight and obesity tend to reach epidemic proportions. The present study aimed to examine whether the composition of breakfast, through the prism of its macronutrient content, could play a part in the development of excess body weight in children. A sample of 1728 Greek students from 47 primary schools was enrolled for the purposes of this study. Their weight and height were measured and their Body Mass Index was calculated and classified according to the International Obesity Task Force criteria. Their dietary habits, breakfast foods of choice, and physical activity were assessed through the use of a self-completed questionnaire. Further assessment of breakfast composition was carried out in order to evaluate its macronutrient content. Initial analysis, which was only energy-adjusted, showed a negative association between body weight and breakfast protein content and a positive association for lipid content. After further adjustment for age, sex, level of adherence to the Mediterranean diet, and physical activity, there was a significant negative association between breakfast protein and excess body weight in children (p = 0.029), as well as a significant positive association of breakfast lipid content (p = 0.028). Breakfast macronutrient content seems to have an effect on body composition in children, independently of overall adherence to the Mediterranean diet and physical activity, however further research is needed in order to elucidate potential pathways.

Evaluation of a peer support intervention to improve the breakfast habits of Japanese college students

Objectives: This study investigated the impact of a peer support intervention on the breakfast habits of university students in Japan. Both breakfast frequency and breakfast composition were assessed. Design: The study adopted a combination of convergent and intervention designs and used a mixed-methods approach. Setting: College-based peer-support intervention taking place in Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan. Method: Questionnaires on demographic characteristics and breakfast habits were administered to participants ( n = 27) before the online workshop, immediately afterwards, and at 3 and 6 months after the peer support intervention, coupled with a 4-week breakfast status report. Semi-structured interviews were then conducted with 17 participants to gain a more detailed understanding of the impact of the intervention. Results: Quantitative results showed that immediately after the intervention, breakfast intake frequency and breakfast composition improved significantly; however, post-intervention, there was a difference in persistence between frequency and composition. In the qualitative element of the study, ‘peer stimulation’ and ‘coercion’ were identified as drivers of the changes identified. In addition, ‘changes in awareness and behaviour’ and ‘realisation of the need for breakfast’ were noted by participants. Conclusion: Peer support interventions can improve the breakfast habits of university students. A follow-up intervention within 6 months for breakfast frequency and within 3 months for breakfast composition following the intervention may help sustain the observed beneficial effects.

The role of primary school teachers’ nutrition training in healthy eating promotion

Background: The prevalence of overweight and obesity in childhood makes intervention imperative, and schools provide a privileged setting in which to undertake this work. Teachers have the potential to influence children’s eating behaviour through nutrition education and by acting as positive role models. We conducted a case–control study in 14 primary schools in Italy to assess the impact of a nutrition training programme (NTP) for primary school teachers on school children’s eating habits. Methods: From participating schools, 11 volunteer teachers attended the NTP (trained teachers; TT), and as a control, we identified a group of teachers (untrained teachers; UT) who did not attend the NTP but who were interested in participating in the study. The effect of NTP intervention was evaluated on 599 children in the TT group and 536 in the UT group, respectively, using the KidMed questionnaire to assess adherence to a Mediterranean diet. Results: Overall adherence to a Mediterranean diet was low in 24.3%, medium in 56.6% and high in 19.1% of the children’s population, with an overall median score of 5 (−3 to 12). Compared with the UT group, children in the TT group had a significantly higher adherence to a Mediterranean diet (Wilcoxon test p-value = .012) and showed significantly healthier habits regarding fast-food consumption, the eating of sweets and breakfast composition. Conclusions: Study findings demonstrate the efficacy of an indirect intervention for primary school children through intensive nutrition training for teachers. When planning future nutrition education in primary school, the role models offered by teachers should drive the interventions developed.

Breakfast Frequency and Composition in a Group of Polish Children Aged 7-10 Years.

Breakfast is considered one of the crucial elements of a healthy diet. Most studies evaluate breakfast consumption with the risk of obesity and other health effects. Less attention is paid to the evaluation of breakfast composition and patterns. Thus, this study aimed to describe the most frequently observed breakfast patterns and to assess breakfast composition and quality in a group of Polish early school-age children. The cross-sectional survey study was conducted in school years 2017/2018 and 2018/2019. Information regarding breakfast was obtained with the use of an original paper-based weekly observation diary, and breakfast quality was assessed with a special scoring designed to be used together with the diary. In total, 223 schoolchildren of the second and third grades participated in the study, and 200 diaries were analyzed. More than ¾ of the participants consumed breakfast every day. Nearly 68% of meals were classified as well balanced, but only 16.5% of children eat a well-balanced breakfast every day. The number of children who usually (≥5 times per week) eat a sandwich for breakfast was 94 (47%), and that of those who habitually eat cereal and milk or porridge was 29 (14.5%). Only 7% of children consumed fruit or vegetables for breakfast daily, and 26.5% never eat fruit or vegetables for breakfast. Concluding, most children eat breakfast regularly, but the meal composition and quality might be improved.

Breakfast Consumption Habits at Age 6 and Cognitive Ability at Age 12: A Longitudinal Cohort Study.

This study aimed to assess the relationship between breakfast composition and long-term regular breakfast consumption and cognitive function. Participants included 835 children from the China Jintan Cohort Study for the cross-sectional study and 511 children for the longitudinal study. Breakfast consumption was assessed at ages 6 and 12 through parental and self-administered questionnaires. Cognitive ability was measured as a composition of IQ at age 6 and 12 and academic achievement at age 12, which were assessed by the Chinese versions of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales and standardized school reports, respectively. Multivariable general linear and mixed models were used to evaluate the relationships between breakfast consumption, breakfast composition and cognitive performance. In the longitudinal analyses, 94.7% of participants consumed breakfast ≥ 4 days per week. Controlling for nine covariates, multivariate mixed models reported that compared to infrequent breakfast consumption, regular breakfast intake was associated with an increase of 5.54 points for verbal and 4.35 points for full IQ scores (p < 0.05). In our cross-sectional analyses at age 12, consuming grain/rice or meat/egg 6–7 days per week was significantly associated with higher verbal, performance, and full-scale IQs, by 3.56, 3.69, and 4.56 points, respectively (p < 0.05), compared with consuming grain/rice 0–2 days per week. Regular meat/egg consumption appeared to facilitate academic achievement (mean difference = 0.232, p = 0.043). No association was found between fruit/vegetable and dairy consumption and cognitive ability. In this 6-year longitudinal study, regular breakfast habits are associated with higher IQ. Frequent grain/rice and meat/egg consumption during breakfast may be linked with improved cognitive function in youth.

A Toolbox for Mimicking Gastrointestinal Conditions in Children: Simulated Paediatric Breakfast Media (SPBM) for Addressing the Variability of Gastric Contents After Typical Paediatric Breakfasts

Since co-administration of dosage forms with food can impact drug exposure, food effect studies became an integral part of oral drug product development. Studies are usually performed in healthy adults and the dosage form is co-administered with a high-fat high-calorie standard breakfast meal to mimic worst-case dosing conditions. A corresponding study design for children is lacking but would be essential for a proper risk-assessment in this vulnerable patient group. To protect healthy children from unnecessary in vivo studies, it would be even more desirable to predict food effects based on other than in vivo studies in the target age group. In the present study, typical children's breakfasts in different parts of the world were identified, prepared and physicochemical properties were assessed. Subsequently, Simulated Paediatric Breakfast Media (SPBM) resembling breakfast composition and properties were designed and applied in in vitro dissolution experiments mimicking the initial composition of the postprandial stomach after breakfast ingestion. Study results indicate the impact of different simulated gastric conditions on drug release. SPBM enabled to better estimate the variability of in vivo drug release in fed dosing conditions and their use will aid in better assessing food effects in children in different parts of the world.

Energy and macronutrient intakes at breakfast and cognitive declines in community-dwelling older adults: a 9-year follow-up cohort study

It is unclear whether breakfast consumption and breakfast composition are independently associated with changes in cognition over a long-term period in older adults. We aimed to examine the associations between energy and macronutrient intakes at breakfast and cognitive declines. We included 2935 participants aged 55-93 y at baseline from the China Health and Nutrition Survey in our analysis. Cognition was assessed in 1997, 2000, 2004, 2006, and 2015. Dietary intake was assessed using weighing methods in combination with 24-h food records. Breakfast contributed to 25.9% of total energy intake of the day and percentages of breakfast energy intake from protein, fat, and carbohydrates were 12.8%, 11.5%, and 75.7%, respectively. During a median follow-up of 9 y, the β values for changes in global cognitive z-scores for Quintile 5 of protein and fat intakes at breakfast, with Quintile 1 as the reference, were 0.13 (95% CI: 0.01-0.25) and 0.17 (95% CI: 0.04-0.30), respectively. Substitution of 5% energy from carbohydrates with equivalent energy from protein (β, 0.06; 95% CI: 0.01-0.11) or fat (β, 0.05; 95% CI: 0.02-0.08) at breakfast was positively associated with the change in the global cognitive z-score. Energy intake at breakfast was not significantly associated with the global cognitive z-score. Similar results were found for the verbal memory z-score. The positive association of breakfast fat intake and the inverse association of breakfast carbohydrate intake with cognitive declines were stronger in urban residents. Higher intakes of protein and fat and lower intake of carbohydrates at breakfast were associated with a lower rate of cognitive decline in older adults. Substitution of carbohydrates with protein or fat intake at breakfast may help to delay or prevent cognitive declines.

High-Fat Breakfast Increases Bioavailability of Albendazole Compared to Low-Fat Breakfast: Single-Dose Study in Healthy Subjects.

Purpose: Albendazole is a benzimidazole carbamate drug with anthelmintic and antiprotozoal activity against intestinal and tissue parasites. It has been described that the administration with meals increases albendazole absorption. Our aim was to compare the systemic exposure in healthy volunteers of two albendazole formulations after a single oral dose under fed conditions and to evaluate the effect of breakfast composition on albendazole and albendazole sulfoxide bioavailability. Methods: 12 healthy volunteers were included in a 4-period, 4-sequence, crossover, open, randomized, bioequivalence clinical trial, including two stages to compare two formulations of albendazole. Single oral doses of 400 mg albendazole were administered under fed conditions (a low-fat breakfast in first stage and a high-fat breakfast in the second) separated by 7-day washout periods. Plasma albendazole and albendazole sulfoxide concentrations were measured by HPLC-MS/MS. Findings: Albendazole absorption was clearly influenced by the meal composition. A high-fat breakfast increased albendazole and albendazole sulfoxide area under the concentration–time curve (AUC) and maximum concentration (Cmax) by double, compared to a low-fat breakfast. The bioavailability of the two formulations was very similar, although the sample size was not sufficient to demonstrate bioequivalence because the intraindividual variability of albendazole was approximately 60%. Implications: The higher albendazole and albendazole sulfoxide levels when administered with a high-fat meal could be of importance in clinical practice. Since albendazole labeling recommends its administration with meals, it is necessary to insist on taking it with a fatty meal so that the effectiveness of albendazole is not compromised.

Breakfast-Based Dietary Patterns and Obesity in Tehranian Adults.

BackgroundBreakfast is an important meal of the day that contributes to an overall healthy dietary pattern, better nutrient intake, and diet quality. This study sought to investigate the relationship between breakfast patterns and general and central obesity among middle-aged adults.MethodsIn this cross-sectional study of 840 apparently healthy women and men, aged 20?59 years, we assessed usual dietary intake by means of three 24-hour dietary recalls and we took anthropometric measurements. Dietary patterns were subsequently identified by factor analysis. To assess the association between breakfast composition and central and general obesity, logistic regression analysis was performed.ResultsWe identified three major dietary patterns by factor analysis: the “bread and grains, meat products, and coffee” dietary pattern, the “sweets, tea and coffee” dietary pattern, and the “fruits, vegetables, and eggs” dietary pattern. Those people in the third tertile of the “sweets, tea and coffee” dietary category had a greater chance of having central obesity (odds ratio, 1.80; 95% confidence interval, 1.25?2.59; P=0.001). Moreover, higher adherence to the “bread and grains, meat products, and coffee” pattern increased the chance of central obesity (odds ratio, 1.67; 95% confidence interval, 1.47?1.97; P=0.03).ConclusionOverall, our results suggest that specific breakfast dietary patterns are associated with increased odds of central obesity in Iranian adults.

Breakfast eating patterns and drivers of a healthy breakfast composition

Breakfast has long been described as the most important meal of the day. While breakfast habits and their consequences on children's health and performance are well documented, studies on the adult population are lacking. The present study will fill this gap, providing a comprehensive picture of the Swiss breakfast habits and insights into the determinants of a healthy breakfast composition. Data were collected through a postal survey sent out to a randomly selected sample of 1917 German-speaking Swiss residents, yielding a final sample size of N = 460. Breakfast habits were disclosed, and individual breakfast healthiness scores were assessed by two nutrition specialists. A multiple regression analysis was then performed to investigate the influence of several motivational, socio-demographic, health- and knowledge-related determinants on breakfast healthiness. The sample showed recommendable habits in terms of consumption frequency and quite traditional eating patterns, illustrated by the prevalence of continental breakfasts and equally marked by the frequent consumption of dairy products. Overall, the Swiss breakfast composition is moderately healthy, lacking fruits and whole grain products. Paying attention to healthy food choices in general, higher education level, being a woman and reporting to be fit are factors linked to a healthier breakfast composition; while preferences for low-fat, familiar or convenient foods are correlated to less healthy patterns. Given the parallel between the determinants of a healthy breakfast composition and those of a healthy diet and taking some limiting factors, such as consumers preference for convenience and strong habits, into account, we support the current nutritional advice focusing on balancing the diet over the day or the week rather than on recommendations dedicated to specific meals.

Breakfast consumption and childhood obesity. A narrative review paper

Childhood obesity is considered to be one of the most serious health problems with an increasing prevalence all over the world, especially in Western countries. Several evidence suggests that breakfast consumption is very important for a healthy and balanced diet; however, the influence of breakfast consumption and composition in the development of obesity is not conclusive. The aim of this study was to examine the role of breakfast in the development of obesity in children. A literature review was conducted including a selection of relevant articles published over the last ten years. Most of the studies examined indicated negative association between breakfast consumption and the development of obesity in children; however, the underlying mechanism is still unclear. Therefore, we should promote regular breakfast consumption in this age group to prevent the development of obesity.

Association between breakfast composition and abdominal obesity in the Swiss adult population eating breakfast regularly

BackgroundEvidence from experimental and observational studies is limited regarding the most favorable breakfast composition to prevent abdominal fat accumulation. We explored the association between breakfast composition (a posteriori derived dietary patterns) and abdominal obesity among regular breakfast eaters from a Swiss population-based sample.MethodsThe cross-sectional survey assessed diet using two 24-h dietary recalls in a nationally representative sample of adults aged 18 to 75 years. We derived dietary patterns using principal component analysis based on the intake of 22 breakfast-specific food groups. All regular breakfast eaters were predicted an individual score for each identified pattern, and then classified into tertiles (T1, T2, T3). We defined abdominal obesity as waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) ≥ 0.9 in men and ≥ 0.85 in women. Logistic models were adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics, relevant nutrition- and health-related behaviors, and diet quality during the rest of the day.ResultsOf the 2019 included survey participants, 1351 (67%) were regular breakfast eaters. Among them, we identified three breakfast types: 1) ‘traditional’ − white bread, butter, sweet spread, 2) ‘prudent’ − fruit, unprocessed and unsweetened cereal flakes, nuts/seeds, yogurt, and 3) ‘western’ – processed breakfast cereals, and milk. The ‘prudent’ breakfast was negatively associated with abdominal obesity. After full adjustment, including diet quality during the rest of the day, the association was weaker (T3 vs. T1: OR 0.72, 95% CI: 0.47 to 1.08). People taking a ‘prudent’ breakfast (in T3) had 1.2% lower WHR compared to people taking a breakfast distant from ‘prudent’ (in T1) (P = 0.02, fully adjusted model with continuous log-WHR). We found no association between ‘traditional’ or ‘western’ breakfasts and WHR (OR 1.00, 95% CI: 0.67 to 1.50 and OR 1.16, 95% CI: 0.79 to 1.71, respectively). Findings were in the same directions for the three breakfast types when defining obesity with waist circumference, waist-to-height ratio, or body mass index (≥ 30 kg/m2, for ‘prudent’ breakfast: OR 0.51, 95% CI: 0.31 to 0.85).ConclusionsRegular breakfast consumers had less abdominal obesity if their breakfast was composed of fruit, natural cereal flakes, nuts/seeds and yogurt. This association was partly explained by their healthier diet during the rest of the day.Trial registrationISRCTN16778734.

Breakfast composition, eating habits and determinants of a healthy breakfast composition

Breakfast composition, eating habits and determinants of a healthy breakfast composition

Are dietary patterns at breakfast associated with abdominal obesity in a population-based survey?

Introduction Abdominal obesity is a strong predictor of cardio-metabolic abnormalities. There is limited evidence about the most favorable breakfast composition. We explored the association between data-driven breakfast dietary patterns and abdominal obesity in regular breakfast eaters coming from a national population-based sample. Methods The cross-sectional nutrition survey menuCH assessed diet using two 24-hour dietary recalls (24HDR) in a representative sample of Swiss adults aged 18 to 75 years. Regular breakfast eaters were defined as people breakfasting in both 24HDR and reporting eating breakfast at least 5 days in a usual week. Among them, we derived dietary patterns using principal component analysis based on the intake of 22 breakfast-specific food groups. All regular breakfast eaters were predicted an individual score for each identified pattern, and then classified into tertiles (T1, T2, T3). We defined abdominal obesity as waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) ≥ 0.9 in men and ≥ 0.85 in women. Logistic models were adjusted for sex, age, physical activity, total energy intake, diet quality outside breakfast, alcohol intake, education, food literacy, smoking, nationality, household status, season, and linguistic region. Results Of the 2019 survey participants 1351 (67%) were regular breakfast eaters (42% of men). Among them, we identified 3 patterns: –traditional breakfast - white bread, butter, sweet spread; –prudent breakfast - fruit, natural cereal flakes, nuts/seeds, yogurt; –western breakfast - sweetened breakfast cereals, milk. After adjustment for potential cofounders, the prudent breakfast pattern was negatively associated with abdominal obesity (OR: 0.65 T3 vs. T1, 95% CI: 0.43 to 0.97, P for trend = 0.03). People taking a prudent breakfast (in T3) had 1.4% lower WHR compared to people taking a breakfast distant from prudent (in T1). We found no association for traditional and western breakfast patterns (T3 vs. T1: OR: 1.00, 95% CI: 0.67 to 1.50 and OR: 1.20, 95% CI: 0.82 to 1.76, respectively). Findings were similar when defining abdominal obesity with other anthropometric parameters, such as waist-to-height ratio. Conclusions Consuming regularly a prudent breakfast, i.e., rich in fruit, natural cereal flakes, nuts/seeds and yogurt, was associated with less abdominal obesity in a population-based sample of Swiss adults. Further longitudinal and long-term experimental research is needed to provide recommendations on the optimal breakfast.

Mediterranean diet in a Sicilian student population. Second part: breakfast and its nutritional profile

Breakfast habits affect the nutritional status and health of people, in particular children and adolescents. This is the second part a previous study about the adherence to the Mediterranean diet in a Sicilian (Italy) student population. The investigation analysed both normal weight and overweight subjects in order to understand how eating habits, number of meals and daily calorie intakes could affect their body mass indexes (BMI). The aim of this second part was to analyse the breakfast nutritional profiles of this student population. The results highlighted that breakfast was regularly consumed by a percentage ranging from a maximum of 84% (in normal subjects) to a minimum value of 57.4% (in overweight/obese students). Milk, yoghurt, sugar, bread/rusk and tea contributed as main foods to the breakfast composition. The results highlighted that subjects who consumed breakfast showed lower BMI values with significant differences between normal and overweight/obese students.

Food perception at lunchtime does not depend on the nutritional and perceived characteristics of breakfast

Breakfast consumption can entail nutritional advantages positively affecting food choices. This study investigated the effect of minor changes in breakfast composition on the perceived attributes of foods, both at breakfast and at lunchtime. Four breakfasts were defined considering nutritional and perceptual factors. Three breakfasts varied just for a single cereal-based chocolate-containing food item, while a control breakfast mimicked fasting conditions. Breakfast perception was assessed before and after consumption. Subjects rated breakfast energy content on the basis of single items, while judged breakfast healthiness as a whole, suggesting that the combination of different ingredients can modify the perceived health value of foods. Additionally, 4 h after breakfast, a perceptual evaluation of lunch-related food images was performed, without differences among breakfasts. This study extends current knowledge on the relationship between subjective perceptual attributes and objective energy value and food composition, as well as on breakfast impact on food perception at lunchtime.

The Effects of Breakfast and Breakfast Composition on Cognition in Adults

Extensive literature has addressed the acute cognitive effects of breaking a fast. Recent reviews in this line of work have synthesized available research on the cognitive consequences of fasting compared with nutrient intake and the cognitive effects of macronutrient consumption. These largely have been inconclusive, possibly in part because of selection criteria limiting the scope of studies covered. The purpose of the current review is to integrate the results of the literature examining the cognitive effects of breakfast and breakfast composition in adults with the use of a flexible definition of breakfast, specifically, any caloric intake after a fasting period of ≥8 h. This review includes 38 studies that examine the acute cognitive impact of breakfast and 16 studies that examine the effects of breakfast composition. Results suggest that healthy adults show a small but robust advantage for memory (particularly delayed recall) from consuming breakfast. Largely equivocal results emerge for attention and motor and executive function; there were no effects from breakfast on language. Regarding breakfast composition, a smaller number of studies and widely disparate methodology addressing this question preclude definitive conclusions about the effects of cognition. A subset of this literature examines these questions in the context of glucoregulation; the findings emphasize the importance of considering differences in glucoregulation in research designs, even among healthy cohorts. The limitations of this literature include methodologic differences, such as the use of different tests to measure cognitive constructs, as well as the effects of timing in test administration.

The Effects of Breakfast Consumption and Composition on Metabolic Wellness with a Focus on Carbohydrate Metabolism

Findings from epidemiologic studies indicate that there are associations between breakfast consumption and a lower risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and metabolic syndrome, prompting interest in the influence of breakfast on carbohydrate metabolism and indicators of T2DM risk. The objective of this review was to summarize the available evidence from randomized controlled trials assessing the impact of breakfast on variables related to carbohydrate metabolism and metabolic wellness. Consuming compared with skipping breakfast appeared to improve glucose and insulin responses throughout the day. Breakfast composition may also be important. Dietary patterns high in rapidly available carbohydrate were associated with elevated T2DM risk. Therefore, partial replacement of rapidly available carbohydrate with other dietary components, such as whole grains and cereal fibers, proteins, and unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs), at breakfast may be a useful strategy for producing favorable metabolic outcomes. Consumption of fermentable and viscous dietary fibers at breakfast lowers glycemia and insulinemia. Fermentable fibers likely act through enhancing insulin sensitivity later in the day, and viscous fibers have an acute effect to slow the rate of carbohydrate absorption. Partially substituting protein for rapidly available carbohydrate enhances satiety and diet-induced thermogenesis, and also favorably affects lipoprotein lipids and blood pressure. Partially substituting UFA for carbohydrate has been associated with improved insulin sensitivity, lipoprotein lipids, and blood pressure. Overall, the available evidence suggests that consuming breakfast foods high in whole grains and cereal fiber, while limiting rapidly available carbohydrate, is a promising strategy for metabolic health promotion.

Energy Contribution and Nutrient Composition of Breakfast and Their Relations to Overweight in Free-living Individuals: A Systematic Review

Previous systematic reviews on the relation between overweight or obesity and breakfast focused on the frequency of consumption and only partially accounted for breakfast nutritional profiles. Given the central role of these factors, we conducted a systematic review of the literature on this putative relation, with a specific focus on breakfast energy intake and/or breakfast composition. Among the 814 articles identified from the literature search in PubMed, 19, mostly cross-sectional, studies met the inclusion criteria (i.e., studies providing a quantitative estimate of the relation between any measure of weight, overweight, and obesity and breakfast energy intake or breakfast macronutrient composition). We excluded studies in subjects with acquired metabolic disorders, such as diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance. Of the 16 studies that evaluated the amount of energy intake at breakfast, 4 found that a lower energy intake at breakfast was significantly associated with obesity in children, adolescents, and adults, whereas 2 partially overlapping studies found that a higher energy intake was significantly associated with a higher body mass index in children. Of the 8 studies investigating breakfast composition, 3 suggested that a breakfast characterized by a higher amount of carbohydrates and a lower amount of fat is significantly related to normal weight in adults, whereas the others reported mixed results. In conclusion, there is some evidence that a lower energy intake at breakfast is related to obesity, although the studies are few and heterogeneous. Studies on the nutrient composition of breakfast have shown inconsistent results.