Brands Of Water Research Articles

Comparison of mineral content of bottled spring and mineral waters marketed in Turkey

Drinking water is the most indispensable substance for humans. Bottled drinking waters are preferred over tap water with the belief that they are more nutritious, better quality, more delicious and safe in terms of health. Therefore, the Turkish bottled (spring and mineral) water market has experienced a continuous growth since 2003, as in the whole world. This study focuses on comparing the common mineral cation calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+) and sodium (Na+) content of twenty one popular bottled spring and mineral water brands marketed in Turkey by using an inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). The average concentrations of Ca, Mg and Na analyzed in bottled spring and mineral water samples were found as 14.9, 24.1 and 8.2 mg/L and 147.9, 44.3 and 117.3 mg/L, respectively. This comparison confirms that bottled natural mineral water has better quality in terms of major nutrient minerals than bottled natural spring waters.

Validation of the shelf life of NAFDAC-certified sachet-packed drinking water brands vended in Nigeria.

This study was performed to validate the shelf life of commercial sachet-packed drinking water produced in the Benin City metropolis, Edo State, Nigeria. Seven brands of sachet-packed water that were freshly produced by manufacturers were collected from respective factories and subjected to standard physicochemical and microbial tests. The colour of all water brands (0·0-5·6 HU) was within the limits recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) (≤15 HU) while the temperature (26·9-28·4°C) was above the limits recommended by WHO (≤25·0°C). The pH reported in brands 1 and 6 at week 8 of storage was below WHO recommended limits (6·5-9·5). At week 8 of storage, brands 1 and 6 had HPC (3·97-4·70 log10 CFU per ml) that were above WHO/National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) recommended limits (≤2 log10 CFU per ml) while TCC (<1 MPN 100ml-1 ) in all brands were within recommended limits (≤10 MPN 100ml-1 ). No thermo-tolerant Coliforms and Cryptosporidium were present in all brands; though, Streptococcus faecalis was detected in brand 6. Based on WHO/NAFDAC specifications for the examined parameters, brands 1 and 6 were inferred to not comply with the recommended shelf life of 2months (approximately 8weeks). Hence, there is a need for strict compliance to NAFDAC-specified Good Manufacturing Practice by these processing factories to prevent probable adverse health effects.

Evaluation of multiple disinfection by-products in tap, filtered and bottled water in Barcelona, Spain

BACKGROUND AND AIM: The formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) as an unintended consequence of drinking water potabilization is a current global concern due to their potential relation to chronic diseases. With the aim of assessing human exposure to DBPs in drinking water, we quantified 4 trihalomethanes (THMs), 11 haloacetic acids (HAAs), 4 haloacetonitriles (HANs), chlorate, chlorite, 1,1-dichloropropanone (DCP), 1,1,1-trichloropropanone (TCP) and chloropicrin, in different drinking water types in Barcelona, Spain. METHODS: DBPs and physicochemical parameters such as conductivity and total organic carbon (TOC), were measured in tap water samples collected at 42 households, and in tap water filtered with activated carbon (AC) (N=6) and reverse osmosis (RO) (N=5). Selected DBPs were also analyzed in 10 popular bottled water brands. RESULTS:All tap water samples contained THMs and HANs, and 98% contained HAAs and chlorate above the limit of quantification (LOQ). Chlorite and TCP were found in 62 and 36% of the tap water samples, respectively, while DCP and chloropicrin were not detected. The median and interquartile range of total THMs, HAAs, HANs, and chlorate in tap water, calculated using values LOQ, were 42.0 (37.5-48.5), 18.0 (10.5-30.3), 3.2 (2.6-3.9), and 214 (159-296) µg/L, respectively. Conductivity was negatively correlated with bromodichloromethane (R=-0.91), TOC (R=-0.83), total HAAs (R=-0.82), dichloroacetonitrile (R=-0.78), TCP (R=-0.75), chlorite (R=-0.70), and positively correlated with the bromine incorporation factor (BIF) of THMs (R=0.82), DXAA (R=0.66), and TXAA (R=0.65) (X=Br/Cl). Both AC and RO filters reduced DBPs in tap water and none of the analyzed DBPs were detected in bottled water. CONCLUSIONS:THMs and HAAs were below the EU regulatory limits (Drinking Water Directive 2020/2184). A clear geographical pattern for most DBPs and for the conductivity was found, driven by the water source. With the generated data, we will develop predictive models based on routine monitoring parameters that could be applied in epidemiological research. KEYWORDS: Water quality, Chemical exposures, Exposure assessment, Multi-pollutant

Microbiological, Physiochemical and Antibiotic Sensitivity Analysis of Bacterial Consortia Associated with Packaged Water Vended in Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria

Packaged water, most especially sachet and bottled water, is one of the major sources of drinking water in Nigeria, especially for commuters, whose major way of quenching thirst is to buy from road side vendors and previous studies has shown that packaged water does not always measure up to standard.&#x0D; Aim: Investigations were done to determine adherence to physiochemical, microbiological standards. Antibiotic susceptibility profile and plasmid profiling of enumerated bacteria using disc diffusion method were carried out on vended packaged water samples.&#x0D; Location of Study: Eleven brands of sachet water and seven brands of bottled water samples vended in Akure, Ondo State were randomly selected.&#x0D; Methodology: Physiochemical analysis was carried out and the parameters were checked in line with standard organization of Nigeria (SON) specifications. Isolation of bacteria was carried out using standard procedures and isolates were identified by various biochemical tests. Plasmid analysis and curing was conducted following standard protocols&#x0D; Results: Total bacterial counts of sachet water brands ranged from 0.2 × 102 to 4.5 × 102 CFU/ml while that of bottled water brands ranged from 0.1 × 102 to 4.2 × 102 CFU/ml. Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Enterobacter aerogenes, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis and Shigella dysentariae. Streptococcus pneumoniae was isolated from the samples.&#x0D; Conclusion: Most packaged water (Bottled water, sachet water) samples are improperly handled and produced, which could serve as a source for spread of antibiotic-resistant potential pathogens, a risk to public health. better surveillance should be done on packaged water sale and production, public health education is encouraged for safety of residents in the Metropolis.

Combining dispersive solid phase extraction using an inexpensive sorbent with dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction for the efficient extraction of some plasticisers from plastic-packed liquids

ABSTRACT The aim of this study is the extraction and determination of di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate and three phthalate esters including di-iso-butyl phthalate, di-n-butyl-phthalate, and di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in several samples which were packed in plastic packages (orange and pineapple juices, three brands of mineral water, and two injectable pharmaceutical solutions). In this work, stearic acid coated calcium carbonate is used as a sorbent in dispersive solid phase extraction followed by dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction. The procedure initiates with the adsorption of the analytes onto the adsorbent. Then, the analytes are removed from the adsorbent by employing an elution solvent. After eluting the adsorbed analytes, the elution solvent is mixed with a few microlitres of a proper extraction solvent. Then, the obtained mixture is rapidly injected into deionised water during the microextraction procedure to attain higher concentrations of the target analytes. Ultimately, an aliquot of the sedimented organic phase is isolated from the aqueous phase by centrifuging and injected into gas chromatography–flame ionisation detector. Under optimal extraction conditions, the limits of detection and quantification were in the ranges of 0.15–0.40 and 0.50–1.33 µg L−1, respectively. Relative standard deviations were less than or equal to 5% for both intra- (n = 6) and inter-day (n = 4) precisions at a concentration of 50 µg L−1 of each analyte. Additionally, sufficiently high values of extraction recoveries and enrichment factors were obtained in the ranges of 53–89% and 266–446, respectively. Abbreviations: DLLME: Dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction; DSPE: Dispersive solid-phase extraction; EF: Enrichment factor; ER: Extraction recovery; FID: Flame ionisation detector; GC: Gas chromatography; LOD: Limit of detection; LOQ: Limit of quantification; MS: Mass spectrometry; RSD: Relative standard deviation

Quality Assessment of Bottled and Unbottled Drinking Water in Bangladesh

The demand for bottled drinking water in Bangladesh is becoming popular due to the lack of safe drinking water sources. The present study was carried out to assess the water quality and public health impacts of local brands of bottled drinking water and tube-well water, compared to the imported ones. Several state-of-the-art techniques were employed to determine the contents of pH, EC, salinity, chloride, nitrates, nitrites, fluoride, sulfates, phosphates, bicarbonate, turbidity, color, total hardness, and total dissolved solids in the studied water samples. The measured data show that the level of dissolved minerals in the local branded bottled water is very low (with an exception for sample codes D1 and D8), while imported brands, Zamzam water, and tube-well water contain satisfactory level of minerals and fulfill Dietary Reference Intake requirements. Total coliform, fecal coliform, and E. coli were found to be absent in local brands of bottled water and tube-well water. On the other hand, concentrations of some radionuclides 40K, 238U, 226Ra, 210Pb, 210Po, 222Rn, 137Cs, and 232Th in local bottled water and tube-well water were found to be less than the permissible level given by WHO (2011). The results reveal that local bottled drinking water manufacturing companies may not be following standard guidelines and quality control steps properly. Thus, improvement in their standard operating process is urgently needed to ensure strict compliance with guidelines set by Bangladesh standards and testing institutions.

Health risk and source assessment of semi-volatile phenols, p-chloroaniline and plasticizers in plastic packaged (sachet) drinking water

The presence of U.S. EPA priority organic contaminants in drinking water poses a dire health risk on consumers. Packaged drinking water such as plastic sachet drinking water has significantly gained market in both developed and developing countries, especially, its dominance in the Ghanaian market. The treatment process, packaging, and storage of the sachet drinking water contribute to the levels of genotoxic semi-volatile phenols, p-chloroaniline, and plasticizers contamination in the drinking water. The study thus sought to investigate the levels of semi-volatile phenols, p-chloroaniline, and plasticizer contaminants in sachet drinking water on the Ghanaian market and the associated health risk of exposure. The study also investigated the possible sources of the contaminants. A total of thirty (30) different brands of sachet water on the Ghanaian market were studied. The samples were extracted in replicates (n = 3) using Solid Phase Extraction (SPE) cartridges and further analysed with GC–MS (SIM mode). The source apportionment was conducted using absolute principal component analysis coupled with multiple, linear regression (APCA-MLR) and automatic linear regression (APCA-MALR) modelling. The mean total levels for the phenols, p-chloroaniline, and plasticizers were between 210.2 and 18,914.9, 11.2 and 18,871.0, and 21.2 and 69,834.1 ng/L respectively. The cumulative non-cancer risk (hazard quotient) and cancer risk upon exposure were computed to range between 2.1 × 10−3 and 1.2 and 1.5 × 10−7 and 1.3 × 10−4 respectively. About 37% of the samples had elevated cancer risk (>10−6) which may contribute to the existing incidence, cause for concern. The five sources found for the contaminants were apportioned as “environmental background (major)”, “water treatment/disinfectant”, “plastic/plasticizers”, “storage and preservation”, and “residual inter-conversion/degradation sources”.

The Stroop Task Influences Product Evaluations.

Cognitive conflict is considered to represent a psychologically negative signal. Indeed, a recent publication showed that cognitive conflict emerging from the Stroop task influences evaluations for neutral shapes that had become associated with conflict and non-conflict, respectively. Building on these findings, the present research investigates the degree to which Stroop conflict influences evaluations of actual products. In an experimental study, participants performed a Stroop task in which they responded to conflict trials (e.g., the word red presented in a blue font) as well as non-conflict trials (e.g., the word red presented in a red font). Participants were also presented with two pictures featuring bottled water brands: One brand was consistently presented after non-conflict trials; the other brand was consistently presented after conflict trials. When participants evaluated the products, the results showed they rated the product associated with Stroop conflict less favorably than the product associated with non-conflict; however, this effect only emerged when participants were thirsty. When participants were not thirsty, no differences emerged. The present findings add to the literature on cognitive conflict and negativity, suggesting that Stroop conflict can influence product evaluations when those products are goal relevant.

A new and ecological miniaturized method by spectrophotometry for quantification of vancomycin in dosage form

Vancomycin, an important antibiotic, is marketed as lyophilized powder. In the context of routine analysis of this product, the existence of a more advantageous and effective method is interesting. Thus, the objective of this work is to develop and validate a new analytical method, faster, low-cost, ecological and miniaturized for quantification of vancomycin in lyophilized powder using spectrophotometry in ultraviolet region. Buffer solution pH 6.8, quartz cuvette with capacity of 700 µL and 280 nm were chosen. The method proved to be linear in the range of 50-150 µg/mL (0.9997). The selectivity of the method was proven in two ways: The standard-sample overlay aimed to identify vancomycin in the sample; The forced degradation test (sample solutions prepared in 0.01 M HCl, 0.01 M NaOH and aqueous conditions and kept at 60 ºC by 8 hours, and UV 254 nm at ambient temperature during 24 hours) aimed to show the susceptibility of the method to consequently indicate the stability of the sample. It was precise in intraday (RSD 1.27%), interday (RSD 1.18%) and between analysts (RSD 1.92%) levels. It was robust when small variations were performed in seven important parameters (wavelength, cuvette, filtration step, dibasic and monobasic phosphate brand, ultrasound time and source of water). The accuracy was proved by the standard recovery test and showed mean recovery of 101.10%. This method can be applied in routine analysis of quality control of vancomycin lyophilized powder and it is an effective, accessible and ecological alternative, which follows the Green Analytical Chemistry principles, presenting less waste generation, no use of toxic solvents, smaller sample volumes and required diluents, which impacts on the final cost of the analyzes.

Sachet water quality and Vendors’ practices in Damongo, northern Ghana during the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 using multivariate statistics, water quality and pollution indices, and panel assessment

The emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 has affected several production services including the water production and delivery processes. This study considered sachet water quality during the advent of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic using multivariate statistics and Water Quality Index, Water Pollution Index and, hygienic and sanitation practices of sixty-two (62) sachet water vendors using a panel assessment approach. The findings showed that vendors did not adhere to proper hygienic practices as ninety-four (94%) of them did not have health clearance, ninety (90%) did not frequently wash their receptacles for selling daily, and most of them stored and sold in unhygienic environments. Majority of the producers violated Food and Drugs Authority Regulations. The Empirical Orthogonal Function analysis showed that total iron, Total Heterotrophic Bacteria, Salmonella, Cl−, E. coli, and fecal and total coliforms were the controlling elements in the water. All the brands were below threshold limits based on the physical water assessment. However, enteric bacteria were observed in all the brands. Water Quality and Water Pollution Indices (WQI and WPI) described all the sachet water brands (vendors and production sites) as excellent for drinking. The WQI computations for samples from the production and vending sites respectively ranged from 0.12 to 0.36 and 0.27–0.42 whereas WPI presented 0.22–0.31 and 0.23–0.32. Comparatively, samples from vendors had elevated elemental concentrations and loads. This suggests that besides sachet water contamination during production and transportation, vendors significantly impacted the quality of sachet water. Sensitization on proper hygienic practices for sachet water production and vending and routine assessment of the quality of sachet water produced or sold is recommended.

Physicochemical and Microbiological Assessment of Some Sachet Water Produced in Irele, Ondo State, Nigeria

This study presents the result obtained from the quality assessment of some sachet water produced in Irele, Ondo State, Nigeria. Eight different brands of sachet water certified by the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) representing the western, northern, eastern, central and southern part of Irele were obtained, their physicochemical characteristics and microbiological parameters were investigated using standard analytical procedures to determine the level of agreement with World Health Organization (WHO) and Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS) requirements for drinking water. The results from the Physico-chemical characteristics temperature, electrical conductivity, pH, total dissolved solids, total hardness, total alkalinity, nitrate and chloride were in the range of 6.2 - 27.0 oC , 77.2-142.3 μS/cm, 7.40 -7.60, 47.7 - 99.5 mg/L, 11.3 - 51.3 mg/L, 13.20 - 70.0 mg/L, 0.8 to 2.5 mg/L and 0.01 - 0.02 mg/L respectively. The concentrations of iron, copper and manganese were in the range of 0.01 - 0.02 mg/L, 0.13 - 0.18 mg/L and 0.01- 0.6 mg/L. The concentrations of cadmium, mercury, lead, and arsenic were not detected in the sachet water studied except in sample H were their concentrations were 0.003, 0.001, 0.01, and 0.01mg/L, respectively. The microbial quality of the studied sachet water was within the WHO recommended standard. All the studied parameters have their values within the recommended limit set by WHO except for sample H with a manganese concentration above the set standard. There is a need for NAFDAC and other water monitoring agencies to focus on promoting the safety of drinking water, particularly sachet water. The Sources of water, production processes, and environment should be inspected regularly by monitory agencies to certify that there is no deviation from recommended standards.

Health risk assessment of nitrate and fluoride in bottled water: a case study of Iran.

Bottled water use has become widespread in recent years. Many Iranian cities are located in regions with a hot and semi-hot climate, and the quality of drinking water is low in most of these areas. Nitrate and fluoride are chemical constituents of drinking water with significant health concerns since they can be harmful in concentrations higher than drinking water standards. This study aims to determine nitrate and fluoride concentrations in different bottled water brands in the study region; evaluate the non-carcinogenic health risks posed by nitrate and fluoride exposure via the ingestion of bottled water; and compare the measured nitrate and fluoride concentrations with the amounts reported on the bottle labels. Twenty bottled water brands were sampled, and their nitrate and fluoride amounts were determined using the spectrophotometry method. The results revealed that 100% of nitrate and 70% of fluoride in samples had concentrations greater than the levels reported on bottle labels. Minimum, maximum, and mean concentrations for nitrate were, respectively, 1.1, 28, and 8.37 mg/L, and for fluoride were 0.014, 2.36, and 0.63 mg/L. The hazard quotient (HQ) values due to nitrate intake were > 1 in 10% of the samples (n = 2) for both infants and children, indicating potential adverse non-carcinogenic health effects upon consumption. For fluoride intake, the potential adverse health effects (HQ > 1) for infants, children, teenagers, and adults were respectively high in 30, 20, 10, and 10% of the samples. For nitrate, the 95th centile for infants was 1.547, and for fluoride, it was 2.62, 2.19, 1.15, and 1 for infants, children, teenagers, and adults, respectively.

English

This study was conducted to assess the physical, chemical, and bacteriological parameters of five- brand of sachet water, and their source point consumed in Bo city, southern Sierra Leone. The physical parameters include: pH, temperature, turbidity, total dissolved solid, and conductivity; chemical parameters include: Residual Chlorine, Magnesium, Potassium, Nitrite, Ammonia; and bacteriological parameters include: Escherichia coli, fecal coliform, and non-fecal coliform. Samples were collected and conveyed to the laboratory within 30 min. The result analyzed shows that the physical, chemical and bacteriological parameters of the Spring Box, and the five-brand were in conformity with the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. However, the pH of four-brand and the Spring Box fell below WHO standards (6.50-8.50), only Tee Spring had a pH which is within the permissible limit. The temperature of the Spring Box, and the five-Brand fell above the WHO standard (25.00°C). It can be said that the physical, chemical, and bacteriological parameters of all the five-brand and the Spring Box, are all within the WHO guidelines limit, and therefore fit for drinking. Key words: pH, WHO, brands, sachet, parameter.

Evaluation of Heavy Metals Concentration in Some Bottled Water Brands in Kurdistan Region

Recently Bottled waters became the main resources for drinking water supply, where the use of bottled waters in some region has exchanged the distribution system of drinking water. However, several different chemicals may be found in drinking bottled water, for instance heavy metals, that have accumulated in lethal amounts which could affect human health after prolonged periods of exposure. Therefore, this study was carried out to evaluate some bottled water brands in Kurdistan region of Iraq in term of their contents of heavy metal comparing with both WHO and SQI water standards. About 108 samples were collected (18 brands; 6 samples from each brand) from October to December 2019, bought randomly from grocery shops and supermarkets in Duhok, Erbil and Sulaymaniyah city, Kurdistan region, Iraq. Cobalt (Co), Cadmium (Cd), Lead (Pb), Copper (Cu), Chromium (Cr), Iron (Fe), Selenium (Se) and Mercury (Hg) concentrations were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Heavy metal pollution index (HPI), degree of contamination (Cdeg) and heavy metal evaluation index (HEI) were also calculated for evaluating the overall quality of bottled water. Results of individual criteria revealed that, excluding Cd and Hg, heavy metals content in all bottled water samples were lower than approved limits according to Iraqi's (IQS:417) and WHO standards. Though, the results exhibited that Cd content in some of the studied water samples was greater than the allowable limits (3μg/L) according to the depended standards. Concerning the values of metal pollution indices, although there were higher HPI values than critical value (100) in three water brands i.e. Al-Joud, Al-Waha and Sanbenedetto, the indices values for all other bottled water were below the critical value. According to the results of this study, it can be concluded that except for Cd value in few brands and all Hg values, the studied bottled water are safe for drinking. Moreover, companies of bottled water package are recommended to monitor their products through analyzing the water sample periodically and use activated carbon filtration to ensure the safety of drinking bottled water.

My Love from the Mountain: Contingent bordering processes at Mount Changbai/Baekdu

Critical examinations of the enduring geographical myth of natural borders challenge the technical approach toward borders that tempts us to think about and act in the world in exclusively territorial and geometric terms. Drawing insights from and seeking to contribute to existing literature on the reification, naturalisation, and fetishisation of borders, this two‐part paper presents a unique case study of contingent bordering processes at Mount Changbai/Baekdu in the China–Korea Borderland. The first part investigates the making and remaking of the China–Korea border from the late 17th century to the 20th century, to reveal how the narratives of Mount Changbai/Baekdu as a “holy mountain” and a “natural border” were conceived and imposed to legitimise the Manchu‐Qing Chinese and Chosŏn‐Korean regimes respectively, and how these narratives were challenged and superseded in subsequent social and political circumstances. The second part investigates the complex ways these narratives have been appropriated by examining contemporary bordering processes as revealed in the commodification of mineral water, with a particular focus on the development of two brands of bottled water, one South Korean and one Chinese, both extracted from the Chinese side of Mount Changbai/Baekdu. This paper highlights the distinctiveness of non‐Western border concepts and practices, and the importance of making reference to them when discussing border and territorial issues in specifically Asian contexts with diverse traditions of territorial governance. It also points out the pressing need to investigate the contemporary socio‐economic implications of the complex intertwining of history, memory, and identity in borderlands. This is particularly the case given the surge of domestic and foreign corporate investment flowing into Asia’s borderland regions, transforming 20th‐century economic backwaters into 21st‐century hotbeds of resource exploitation and commodity production, even while the “ghosts of borderland’s past” continue to bedevil relations between cultures that have no contemporary physical borders.

Classification and hierarchical cluster analysis of principal Romanian bottled mineral waters

In the present study, 53 Romanian origin and commercially available mineral water brands were collected from the market and analyzed based on the chemical, mineral content labeled by manufacturers. The selected chemical parameters were, from the cations: Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, from the anions: HCO3-, Cl-, SO42-, and fixed residue at 180 °C. The Spearman correlation showed that cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+) had a positive correlation of 0.90, 0.83 and 0.75 with HCO3-. The mineral content of bottled waters varied between a broad spectrum. According to the fixed residue, the distribution of low, medium, and rich mineralized water was 43.9 %, 41.46 % and 14.63 %. Based on ion composition, mineral waters can be classified as bicarbonate-, calcium-, magnesium-sodium waters with 34 %, 26.4 %, 24.5 % and 18.9 %, respectively. From the Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) two different clusters and five sub-clusters were derided; the first had three mineral and bicarbonate degrees (1.1-low, 1.3-medium and 1.2-high), and the average Ca2+/Mg2+ ratios varied between 3.61−5.71. The mineral water brands with very high mineral and bicarbonate content belonged to cluster 2. The differences in the chemical composition of the bottled waters can be mainly attributed to the geological structure of the hydro-mineral basins, the post-volcanic activities and residence time as well.

Bottled water brands are contaminated with multidrug resistant bacteria in Nairobi, Kenya

Background: The demand for drinking water has necessitated the proliferation of bottled water companies in Kenya. This study evaluated if retailed bottled water in Nairobi Kenya complies with both local and international reference criteria. Methods: A total of 42 different water brands (25 approved by Kenya Revenue Authority (KRA) and 17 banned brands) were analyzed for both physicochemical and bacteriological quality. The spread plate method was used to obtain the total plate count of bacteria, while the membrane filter method was used to obtain total coliform count (TCC) and fecal coliform count (FCC). Structured interviews were used to gather company-related information. Results: Overall, 16% of KRA-approved and 35.3% of banned bottled water were contaminated with heterotrophic bacteria. Of the approved water brands, 4% were positive for total coliforms, compared with 17% of the banned brands. Similarly, 4% and 17% approved and banned water brands were positive for fecal coliforms, respectively. Escherichia coli (19.1%), Pseudomonas spp. (9.5%) and Klebsiella spp. (4.8%) were the most common bacterial types isolated from all water brands, most of which exhibited multidrug resistance. In multivariable analysis, water companies that cleaned pipework and bottles using chlorine-based disinfectants (OR 0.08, 95% CI 0.01 to 0.8), those that had food safety programs (OR 0.1, 95% CI 0.019 to 0.9), had standard operating procedures (SOP) for water sourcing (OR 0.1, 95% CI 0.012 to 0.9) and SOP for contamination protection (OR 0.1, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.9) remained independently associated with bottled water brands exceeding WHO TCC limits. Conclusions: A number of bottled water brands were contaminated with one or more types of indicator bacteria, some of which were multidrug-resistant. Water bottling companies’ processes contribute to contamination. Rigorous regulation and monitoring will improve water quality and safety.

Physicochemical Characteristics of Selected Sachet and Bottled Water in Abraka, Delta State

Some physicochemical properties of five brands of sachet and five brands of bottled water sold/produced in Abraka; Ethiope East Local Government Area of Delta State was investigated. Amounts of heavy in the water samples were also determined. The results were compared with World Health Organization (WHO) standards and Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ) respectively. Seventy percent of the samples had pH levels below the minimum level of 6.50 recommended by WHO and NSDWQ, suggesting that the water samples are acidic. The slight acidity of the water samples may not be unconnected to impurities from poor treatment techniques. Results for other physicochemical parameters: EC (78.60 ± 34.06 µs/cm), TDS (42.80 ± 18.46 mg/L), Temperature (30.02 ± 0.46 OC), Cl- (16.88 ± 7.01 mg/L), NO3- (0.12 ± 0.05 mg/L), NO2- (&lt;0.001 mg/L), TH(10.60 ± 7.09 mg/L), Cu(0.05 ± 0.00 mg/L), Fe(0.34 ± 0.19 mg/L), Zn(0.11 ± 0.02 mg/L) and Mn (0.03 ± 0.00 mg/L) for sachet water samples; EC (99.60 ± 76.18 µs/cm), TDS (54.20 ± 41.84 mg/L), Temperature (29.96 ± 0.21 OC), Cl- (20.85 ± 17.44 mg/L), NO3- (0.12 ± 0.03 mg/L), NO2- (0.01 ± 0.01 mg/L), TH(15.00 ± 16.36 mg/L), Cu(0.04 ± 0.01 mg/L), Fe(0.20 ± 0.15 mg/L), Zn(0.11 ± 0.03 mg/L) and Mn (0.09 ± 0.01 mg/L) for bottled water samples; were within permissible limits, indicating that the water samples are good enough for human consumption.

Water Quality of Selected Sachet Water Brands Sold in Sango-Ota, Nigeria

Clean and safe water drinking is essential for the attainment of the United Nations sustainable development goals. The study assessed the physical and chemical parameters of ten (10) brands of sachet water sold at Sango-Ota in Ogun State, Nigeria. The physical parameters (temperature, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS), power of hydrogen (pH) and turbidity) and chemical parameters ((calcium (Ca), potassium (K), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe) and chloride (Cl)) of the sachet water samples were determined. The physical parameter tests were analysed using Hanna Instruments (Model HI 98130). The compliance of the physico-chemical parameters of the samples with the drinking water standard requirements of the World Health Organisation (WHO) and Nigeria Standard Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ) was analysed. The pH values of the samples were within the range 6.5-8.5, in conformity with the WHO and NSDWQ standard for drinking water. The electrical conductivity ranged from 0.02 - 0.06 µS/cm, falling within the permissible limit (1000 µS/cm) of WHO standard. The TDS of 0.01 - 0.03 mg/l were within the recommended permissible limit (1000mg/l) recommended by WHO. Similarly, the TDS, TSS and Turbidity were within the recommended permissible limits of the WHO. For the chemical parameters, the concentrations of K, Cu, Mn, Zn, Mg, Fe and Cl in the sachet water samples were within the WHO permissible limits of drinking water. However, some brands had their Ca concentrations above the WHO drinking water permissible limit. Generally, all the brands of sachet water samples studied were considered safe for drinking.

Bottled water brands are contaminated with multidrug resistant bacteria in Nairobi, Kenya

Background: The demand for drinking water has necessitated the proliferation of bottled water companies in Kenya. This study evaluated if retailed bottled water in Nairobi Kenya complies with both local and international reference criteria. Methods: A total of 42 different water brands (25 approved by Kenya Revenue Authority (KRA) and 17 banned brands) were analyzed for both physicochemical and bacteriological quality. The spread plate method was used to obtain the total plate count of bacteria, while the membrane filter method was used to obtain total coliform count (TCC) and fecal coliform count (FCC). Structured interviews were used to gather company-related information. Results: Overall, 16% of KRA-approved and 35.3% of banned bottled water were contaminated with heterotrophic bacteria. Of the approved water brands, 4% were positive for total coliforms, compared with 17% of the banned brands. Similarly, 4% and 17% approved and banned water brands were positive for fecal coliforms, respectively. Escherichia coli (19.1%), Pseudomonas spp. (9.5%) and Klebsiella spp. (4.8%) were the most common bacterial types isolated from all water brands, most of which exhibited multidrug resistance. In multivariable analysis, water companies that cleaned pipework and bottles using chlorine-based disinfectants (OR 0.08, 95% CI 0.01 to 0.8), those that had food safety programs (OR 0.1, 95% CI 0.019 to 0.9), had standard operating procedures (SOP) for water sourcing (OR 0.1, 95% CI 0.012 to 0.9) and SOP for contamination protection (OR 0.1, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.9) remained independently associated with bottled water brands exceeding WHO TCC limits. Conclusions: A number of bottled water brands were contaminated with one or more types of indicator bacteria, some of which were multidrug-resistant. Water bottling companies’ processes contribute to contamination. Rigorous regulation and monitoring will improve water quality and safety.