Brain Glutamate Levels Research Articles

Detection of Glutamate Alterations in the Human Brain Using 1H-MRS: Comparison of STEAM and sLASER at 7 T.

To assess reproducibility of glutamate measurement in the human brain by two short echo time (TE) 1H-MRS sequences [stimulated echo acquisition mode (STEAM) and semi-localized by adiabatic selective refocusing (sLASER)] at 7 T. Reliable assessment of glutamate is important when studying a variety of neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. At 7 T, the glutamate signal can be separated from the glutamine signal and hence more accurately measured as compared to lower field strengths. A sLASER sequence has been developed for 7 T, using field focusing at short TE, resulting in twice as much signal as can be obtained using STEAM and improved localization accuracy due to a decreased chemical shift artifact. Eight subjects were scanned twice using both STEAM and sLASER. Data were acquired from the frontal and occipital brain region. Subsequently, intraclass correlations were computed for the estimated metabolite concentrations. sLASER has higher ICC's for glutamate concentration as compared to STEAM in both the frontal and occipital VOI, which is probably due to the higher sensitivity and localization accuracy. We conclude that sLASER 1H-MRS at 7 T is a reliable method to obtain reproducible measures of glutamate levels in the human brain at such high accuracy that individual variability, even between age-matched subjects, is measured.

Corticolimbic hyper-response to emotion and glutamatergic function in people with high schizotypy: a multimodal fMRI-MRS study

Animal models and human neuroimaging studies suggest that altered levels of glutamatergic metabolites within a corticolimbic circuit have a major role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Rodent models propose that prefrontal glutamate dysfunction could lead to amygdala hyper-response to environmental stress and underlie hippocampal overdrive in schizophrenia. Here we determine whether changes in brain glutamate are present in individuals with high schizotypy (HS), which refers to the presence of schizophrenia-like characteristics in healthy individuals, and whether glutamate levels are related to altered corticolimbic response to emotion. Twenty-one healthy HS subjects and 22 healthy subjects with low schizotypy (LS) were selected based on their Oxford and Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences rating. Glutamate levels were measured in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy, followed by a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan to measure corticolimbic response during emotional processing. fMRI results and fMRI × glutamate interactions were considered significant after voxel-wise P<0.05 family-wise error correction. While viewing emotional pictures, HS individuals showed greater activation than did subjects with LS in the caudate, and marginally in the ACC, hippocampus, medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) and putamen. Although no between-group differences were found in glutamate concentrations, within the HS group ACC glutamate was negatively correlated with striatal activation (left: z=4.30, P=0.004 and right: z=4.12 P=0.008 caudate; left putamen: z=3.89, P=0.018) and marginally with MPFC (z=3.55, P=0.052) and amygdala (left: z=2.88, P=0.062; right: z=2.79, P=0.079), correlations that were not present in LS subjects. These findings provide, to our knowledge, the first evidence that brain glutamate levels are associated with hyper-responsivity in brain regions thought to be critical in the pathophysiology of psychosis.

Amiodarone reduces depolarization-evoked glutamate release from hippocampual synaptosomes

Decreased brain glutamate level has emerged as a new therapeutic approach for epilepsy. This study investigated the effect and mechanism of amiodarone, an anti-arrhythmic drug with antiepileptic activity, on glutamate release in the rat hippocampus. In a synaptosomal preparation, amiodarone reduced 4-aminopyridine-evoked Ca2+-dependent glutamate release and cytosolic Ca2+ concentration elevation. Amiodarone did not affect the 4-aminopyridine-evoked depolarization of the synaptosomal membrane potential or the Na+ channel activator veratridine-evoked glutamate release, indicating that the amiodarone-mediated inhibition of glutamate release is not caused by a decrease in synaptosomal excitability. The inhibitory effect of amiodarone on 4-aminopyridine-evoked glutamate release was markedly decreased in synaptosomes pretreated with the Cav2.2 (N-type) and Cav2.1 (P/Q-type) channel blocker ω-conotoxin MVIIC, the calmodulin antagonists W7 and calmidazolium, or the protein kinase A inhibitors H89 and KT5720. However, the intracellular Ca2+-release inhibitors dantrolene and CGP37157 had no effect on the amiodarone-mediated inhibition of glutamate release. Furthermore, amiodarone reduced the frequency of miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents without affecting their amplitude in hippocampal slices. Our data suggest that amiodarone reduces Ca2+ influx through N- and P/Q-type Ca2+ channels, subsequently reducing the Ca2+-calmodulin/protein kinase A cascade to inhibit the evoked glutamate release from rat hippocampal nerve terminals.

A potential mechanism for the ameliorative effect of thymoquinone on pentylenetetrazole-induced kindling and cognitive impairments in mice.

Cognitive dysfunction is commonly observed in epileptic patients. Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) kindling is a well established animal model which simulates clinical epilepsy. This study evaluated the potential role of glutamate, oxidative stress and nitric oxide (NO) overproduction in pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced kindling and associated cognitive impairments in mice and effect of thymoquinone on these parameters. Repeated treatment of mice with a subconvulsive dose of PTZ (35mg/kg i.p.) once every alternate-day for 12 injections induced kindling. PTZ-kindled mice showed learning and memory impairments as assessed by acquisition and probe trials of Morris water maze and step-through latency of passive avoidance tests. Concurrently, the brain glutamate, malondialdehyde and nitrite levels were increased while the brain intracellular reduced glutathione level and glutathione peroxidase activity were decreased in PTZ-kindled mice. Also, the brain inducible but not neuronal NO synthase mRNA and protein expressions were increased in PTZ-kindled mice. Treatment of mice with thymoquinonne (5, 10 and 20mg/kg i.p.) along with alternate-day subconvulsive dose of PTZ produced dose-dependent protection against PTZ-induced kindling and learning and memory impairments. Moreover, treatment of mice with thymoquinonne (20mg/kg) inhibited the biochemical alterations induced by PTZ in the brain except the elevation of brain glutamate level. The associated increase in brain inducible NO synthase mRNA and protein expressions were also inhibited. These results suggest that glutamate, and subsequent oxidative stress and NO overproduction, via inducible NO synthase, play an important role in the pathophysiology of PTZ-induced kindling and cognitive impairments in mice. Thymoquinone dose-dependently protects against PTZ-induced kindling and cognitive impairments. Inhibition of PTZ-induced brain oxidative stress and NO overproduction, via increase the expression and activity of inducible NO synthase, may play an important role in thymoquinone action.

Acute stress effects on GABA and glutamate levels in the prefrontal cortex: A 7T 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy study.

There is ample evidence that the inhibitory GABA and the excitatory glutamate system are essential for an adequate response to stress. Both GABAergic and glutamatergic brain circuits modulate hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis activity, and stress in turn affects glutamate and GABA levels in the rodent brain. However, studies examining stress-induced GABA and glutamate levels in the human brain are scarce. Therefore, we investigated the influence of acute psychosocial stress (using the Trier Social Stress Test) on glutamate and GABA levels in the medial prefrontal cortex of 29 healthy male individuals using 7 Tesla proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. In vivo GABA and glutamate levels were measured before and 30 min after exposure to either the stress or the control condition. We found no associations between psychosocial stress or cortisol stress reactivity and changes over time in medial prefrontal glutamate and GABA levels. GABA and glutamate levels over time were significantly correlated in the control condition but not in the stress condition, suggesting that very subtle differential effects of stress on GABA and glutamate across individuals may occur. However, overall, acute psychosocial stress does not appear to affect in vivo medial prefrontal GABA and glutamate levels, at least this is not detectable with current practice 1H-MRS.

Fructose-1,6-diphosphate and vitamin C combination increases seizure threshold in chemical kindling models

Background: Fructose-1,6-diphosphate (FDP), through its activity in glucose metabolism, has anticonvulsant efficacy whereas vitamin C acts as neuromodulator. Aims and Objectives: To assess the antiepileptic effects of FDP, vitamin C and their combination in intravenous pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) and intracranial carbachol kindling model. Materials and Methods: PTZ kindling was induced by intravenous infusion of PTZ (10 mg/ml; infusion rate: 1 ml/min) to rats. For carbachol kindling, intracranial administration of carbachol (1 μl; 5 μg/ml) was done at well-spaced intervals by introducing maximum three injections a day, and maximum nine administrations until stage 5 epileptic convulsions were produced. The treated group animals received FDP, vitamin C or both, 28 days before the kindling. During kindling, time latency to reach a seizure stage, electroencephalogram (EEG) recording, and frequency of stimulation were recorded. Brain homogenate parameters included measurement of levels of neurotransmitters, glutathione (GSH), and malondialdehyde (MDA). One-way ANOVA was used for determination of a significant difference between the groups. Results: Slowing of seizure progression, increase in seizure threshold and required number of stimuli to reach to stage 5 convulsion was highest with FDP and Vitamin C combination followed by FDP and Vitamin C alone treatment. EEG data during the PTZ infusion indicated ictal epileptiform in disease control group and not in treatment groups. The test drugs either alone or in combination did not alter glutamate and aspartate levels in brain but increased the γ-aminobutyric acid and GSH whereas reduced MDA levels. Conclusion: It can be concluded that both FDP and Vitamin C has beneficial effects in chemical induced kindling and their combination shows synergistic effects.

The Role of Glutamate Dehydrogenase Activity in Development of Neurodegenerative Disorders

The specific role of Glutamate dehydrogenase (GLDH) in the brain is not yet clear, but it is an important enzyme in protein degradation as well as a metabolism regulator of glutamate as a neurotransmitter. The enzyme probably provides crucial protection for postsynaptic membranes against the neurotoxic effects of glutamate neurotransmitters. In men, GLDH activity declines almost evenly through the ages; in women, it declines faster in the first five decades. In the years of menopause, GLDH activity declines slower. The diminished GLDH activities in leukocytes and in the brain vary considerably, but they are parallel with the progress of neurodegenerative diseases. The GLDH activity is partly deficient in the brain, particularly in the leukocytes of patients with heterogeneous neurological disorders and degeneration of multiple neuronal systems. We found a statistically significant difference of GLDH activity in the cerebrospinal fluid in patients with neurological diseases and unexpected in patients with degenerative and inflammatory disorders. The decrease in GLDH activity in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with neurodegenerative disorders may be one of the reasons for the neuro-excito-toxic glutamate effect. Defining the GLDH activity in leukocytes is at the moment the sole experimental method. The second one could be the measurement in cerebrospinal fluid. The results suggest a possibility to regulate glutamate level in human brain through activation of GLDH.

Anthocyanins abrogate glutamate-induced AMPK activation, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration in postnatal rat brain.

BackgroundGlutamate-induced excitotoxicity, oxidative damage, and neuroinflammation are believed to play an important role in the development of a number of CNS disorders. We recently reported that a high dose of glutamate could induce AMPK-mediated neurodegeneration in the postnatal day 7 (PND7) rat brain. Yet, the mechanism of glutamate-induced oxidative stress and neuroinflammation in the postnatal brain is not well understood. Here, we report for the first time the mechanism of glutamate-induced oxidative damage, neuroinflammation, and neuroprotection by polyphenolic anthocyanins in PND7.MethodsPND7 rat brains, SH-SY5Y, and BV2 cells treated either alone with glutamate or in combination with anthocyanins and compound C were examined with Western blot and immunofluorescence techniques. Additionally, reactive oxygen species (ROS) assay and other ELISA kit assays were employed to know the therapeutic efficacy of anthocyanins against glutamate.ResultsA single injection of glutamate to developing rats significantly increased brain glutamate levels, activated and phosphorylated AMPK induction, and inhibited nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) after 2, 3, and 4 h in a time-dependent manner. In contrast, anthocyanin co-treatment significantly reduced glutamate-induced AMPK induction, ROS production, neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration in the developing rat brain. Most importantly, anthocyanins increased glutathione (GSH and GSSG) levels and stimulated the endogenous antioxidant system, including Nrf2 and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), against glutamate-induced oxidative stress. Interestingly, blocking AMPK with compound C in young rats abolished glutamate-induced neurotoxicity. Similarly, all these experiments were replicated in SH-SY5Y cells by silencing AMPK with siRNA, which suggests that AMPK is the key mediator in glutamate-induced neurotoxicity.ConclusionsHere, we report for the first time that anthocyanins can potentially decrease glutamate-induced neurotoxicity in young rats. Our work demonstrates that glutamate is toxic to the developing rat brain and that anthocyanins can minimize the severity of glutamate-induced neurotoxicity in an AMPK-dependent manner.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-016-0752-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

P.1.h.007 - Peripheral immunization of mice to produce antibodies against NMDA receptor as a potential approach to create a rodent model of schizophrenia

We have investigated the relevance of d-aspartate oxidase, the only enzyme known to selectively degrade d-aspartate (d-Asp), in modulating glutamatergic system homeostasis. Interestingly, the lack of the Ddo gene, by raising d-Asp content, induces a substantial increase in extracellular glutamate (Glu) levels in Ddo-mutant brains. Consistent with an exaggerated and persistent N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) stimulation, we documented in Ddo knockouts severe age-dependent structural and functional alterations mirrored by expression of active caspases 3 and 7 along with appearance of dystrophic microglia and reactive astrocytes. In addition, prolonged elevation of d-Asp triggered in mutants alterations of NMDAR-dependent synaptic plasticity associated to reduction of hippocampal GluN1 and GluN2B subunits selectively located at synaptic sites and to increase in the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid-to-N-methyl-d-aspartate ratio. These effects, all of which converged on a progressive hyporesponsiveness at NMDAR sites, functionally resulted in a greater vulnerability to phencyclidine-induced prepulse inhibition deficits in mutants. In conclusion, our results indicate that d-aspartate oxidase, by strictly regulating d-Asp levels, impacts on the homeostasis of glutamatergic system, thus preventing accelerated neurodegenerative processes.

Evidence of alterations in brain structure and antioxidant status following ‘low-dose’ monosodium glutamate ingestion

ObjectiveThe study investigated the effects of low dose monosodium glutamate (MSG) on the brain, with a view to providing information on its effects on neuronal morphology and antioxidant status in mice. MethodologySixty male mice (20–22 g) were divided into six groups of ten animals each. Vehicle (distilled water), a standard (l-glutamate at 10mg/kg body weight) or MSG (10, 20, 40 and 80mg/kg body weight) were administered orally for 28days. Sections of the cerebrum, hippocampus and cerebellum were processed and stained using hematoxylin and eosin, examined under a microscope and captured images analysed. Plasma and brain levels of glutamate, glutamine, and antioxidants were assayed. Data obtained were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. ResultsMSG ingestion did not significantly alter body weight. Relative brain weight increased at 40 and 80mg/kg compared to vehicle. Histological and histomorphometric changes consistent with neuronal damage were seen in the cerebrum, hippocampus and cerebellum at 40 and 80mg/kg. Plasma glutamate and glutamine assay showed significant increase at 40 and 80mg/kg while no significant difference in total brain glutamate or glutamine levels were seen. Levels of brain superoxide dismutase and catalase decreased with increasing doses of MSG, while nitric oxide (NO) increased at these doses. ConclusionThe study showed morphological alterations consistent with neuronal injury, biochemical changes of oxidative stress and a rise in plasma glutamate and glutamine. These data therefore still support the need for cautious consideration in the indiscriminate use of MSG as a dietary flavor enhancer.

The pathogenesis of bornaviral diseases in mammals.

Natural bornavirus infections and their resulting diseases are largely restricted to horses and sheep in Central Europe. The disease also occurs naturally in cats, and can be induced experimentally in laboratory rodents and numerous other mammals. Borna disease virus-1 (BoDV-1), the cause of most cases of mammalian Borna disease, is a negative-stranded RNA virus that replicates within the nucleus of target cells. It causes severe, often lethal, encephalitis in susceptible species. Recent events, especially the discovery of numerous new species of bornaviruses in birds and a report of an acute, lethal bornaviral encephalitis in humans, apparently acquired from squirrels, have revived interest in this remarkable family of viruses. The clinical manifestations of the bornaviral diseases are highly variable. Thus, in addition to acute lethal encephalitis, they can cause persistent neurologic disease associated with diverse behavioral changes. They also cause a severe retinitis resulting in blindness. In this review, we discuss both the pathological lesions observed in mammalian bornaviral disease and the complex pathogenesis of the neurologic disease. Thus infected neurons may be destroyed by T-cell-mediated cytotoxicity. They may die as a result of excessive inflammatory cytokine release from microglia. They may also die as a result of a 'glutaminergic storm' due to a failure of infected astrocytes to regulate brain glutamate levels.

Brain glutamate levels and antipsychotic response in schizophrenia

There is considerable interest in identifying biomarkers of antipsychotic response in schizophrenia. Glutamate is one key candidate. The development of brain imaging techniques for measuring brain glutamate levels has allowed this hypothesis to be tested directly in patients. This talk will present our ongoing research examining the relationship between brain glutamate levels and antipsychotic response in first-episode psychosis and in treatment-resistant schizophrenia. I will summarise our results from both our completed and ongoing studies, to consider whether glutamate imaging might be useful in the future to identify patients who would benefit from non-dopaminergic antipsychotic drugs and inform novel, glutamate-based, treatment strategies.Disclosure of interestThe author has not supplied his declaration of competing interest.

NF-?B Inhibition Resolves Cognitive Deficits in Experimental Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus through CREB and Glutamate/GABA Neurotransmitters Pathway

Diabetes is associated with deficits in memory and cognitive functions and sustained inflammation. Recently, involvement of NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) has been postulated in many cognitive functions, immune system and inflammation. Despite of role of NF-κB in inflammation, a large gap remains in understanding of the mechanisms and consequences of NF-κB activation in the central nervous system.In this study, we have evaluated the effects of NF-κB activation inhibitor on memory function, neurotransmitter levels changes and brain inflammatory cytokines in type-2 diabetic rats. BAY 11-7082 (BAY) was used as a pharmacological inhibitor of IκBα (inhibitor of kappa B alpha) phosphorylation to block NF-κB activation. Type-2 diabetic rats showed significant memory impairment at 15(th) week. Three weeks BAY treatment produced significant increase in Morris water maze test learning and memory performance. Diabetic animals also showed improved performance in passive avoidance and Y-maze test paradigm following treatment with NF-κB inhibitor BAY. BAY treatment did not show any significant effect on blood glucose and insulin levels. NF-κB inhibition significantly reduced neuroinflammation as evidenced by decrease in IL-6 and TNF-α levels. BAY treatment in diabetic rats also increased the phosphorylation of CREB which indicates that the NF-κB activation inhibitor engage a CREB regulated mechanism in-vivo. Moreover, BAY also reversed the alterations in brain glutamate and GABA levels in diabetic rats. These findings corroborate that NF-κB inhibition may be an effective treatment strategy in diabetes associated cognitive deficits.

Glutamate transporters: the regulatory proteins for excitatory/excitotoxic glutamate in brain

Excitatory aminoacids (EAAs) are stored in glutamatergic neurons and related into synaptic cleft, where they can activate inotropic or metabotropic receptors. Their action ends due to transport mechanisms performed by EAAT transporters (EAAT1/GLAST, EAAT2/GLT1, EAAT3/EAAC1, and EAAT4 or EAAT5). Glutamate neurotoxicity has been described in several neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Huntington’s disease (HD), Parkinson’s disease (PD) and amyotropic lateral sclerosis ALS). Some drugs, such as paclitaxel, are able to increase translation of microRNA and could be possible used as regulatory against glutamate neurotoxicity. Abbreviations: AD: Alzheimer’s disease; ALS: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; AMPA: α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-isoxazole-4propionate; Asp: aspartate; CSF: cerebral spinal fluid; EAA: excitatory amino acid; EAAC1 (EAAT3): excitatory amino acid carrier; EAAT: excitatory amino acid transporter; GABA: gamma-aminobutyric acid; GDH: glutamate dehydrogenase; GLAST (EAAT1): glutamate – aspartate transporter; GLT1 (EAAT2): glutamate transporter; iGluR: ionotropic glutamate receptor; KA: kaninic acid; L-Glu: L-glutamate; mGluR: metabotropic glutamate receptor; miR: micro RNA; NMDA: N-methyl-D-aspartate; PD: Parkinson’s disease Introduction Some amino acids act as neurotransmitters in the nervous system, being glutamate and aspartate the common excitatory amino acids and GABA, glycine and taurine the inhibitory ones. Of these amino acids, glutamate and GABA are intimately associated, as their metabolism is associated through glutamic acid decarboxylase (E.C. 4.1.1.15.) (Figure 1). Furthermore, GABA and glutamic acid effects are antagonic and they are related with CO2 fixation (relevant to central ventilation). Glutamic acid metabolism is also related with NH3 detoxification (due to a reduction in α-ketoglutarate and glutamate contents and an increase in glutamine). The efflux of glutamate from brain across the hemato-encephalic barrier is much higher than the influx [1-3], meaning that metabolism of glutamate must play an important role in regulating the brain glutamate levels. Studies on metabolic generation of glutamate/glutamine by using radioactive substrates in brain shows that two pathways are involved. Glucose, glycerol, lactate, pyruvate, α-ketoglutarate and β-hydroxybutyrate seem to be metabolized to glutamate in neurons [4,5], as a low specific radioactivity of glutamine is obtained. In glial cells [6], where higher glutamine synthase is present [7,8], low radiolabelled glutamate and higher glutamine marked are obtained. This is the case of acetate, propionate, butyrate, citrate, leucine, GABA, aspartate and ammonia [9]. In order to decrease glutamic acid in synaptic cleft, excitatory amino acids transporters have an important effect. Therefore, in this paper we present some aspects of these proteins. Glutamatergic neurotransmission The excitatory amino acids (EAAs) are stored in synaptic vesicles in glutamatergic neurons and, upon an action potential, are released via exocytosis into the synaptic cleft where they can activate two different families of receptors: ionotropic (ligand-gated ion channels) and metabotropic (GTP-binding protein coupled) receptors. The ligandgated ion channels are further divided into three families: α-amino3-hydroxy-5-methyl-isoxazole-4-propionate (AMPA), kainate (KA) and N–methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA). While AMPA and kainate receptors mediate rapid depolarizing responses at most synapses in the mammalian central nervous system [10], the NMDA receptor participates in synaptic plasticity and synapse formation [11]. The family of metabotropic receptors consists of at least eight subtypes and are involved in the modulation of synaptic signaling by EAAs and other neurotransmitters [12]. The termination of the EAA action takes place by an uptake mechanism that uses the Na+, K+ and pH gradients as a driving force to translocate the neurotransmitters against their concentration gradients, keeping their concentration below the level that activates their receptors (~1 μM) [13-15] (Figure 2). Excessive activation of EAA receptors contributes to brain injury through a process known as excitotoxicity. Therefore, this transport mechanism is not only important for ensuring accurate synaptic signaling but also for limiting the EAA-mediated excitotoxicity Excitatory amino acid (EAA) transporters Three broad subtypes of EAA transport activities have been Correspondence to: Josep J Centelles, Departament de Bioquimica i Biologia Molecular (Biologia), Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Avda Diagonal, 643. Edifici Prevosti, planta-2, 08028, Barcelona, Spain, Tel: 934021870; E-mail: josepcentelles@ub.edu Received: January 16, 2016; Accepted: January 27, 2016; Published: January 30, 2016 Centelles JJ (2016) Glutamate transporters: the regulatory proteins for excitatory/excitotoxic glutamate in brain J Transl Sci, 2016 doi: 10.15761/JTS.1000123 Volume 2(1): 92-99 extracellular concentrations of EAAs by reducing the driving force required to transport an EAA into the cytoplasm. The second activity is a chloride-dependent transport which exchanges amino acids identified in brain preparations. One type, which is directly coupled to ATP hydrolysis, introduces glutamate into vesicles for release upon depolarization of the synaptic terminal [16]. It indirectly ensures low Glutamine ADP + Pi Glutamine synthetase (GS) (E.C. 6.3.1.2.) Glutaminase (Gase) (E.C. 3.5.1.2.) NH4 H2O Glutamate GABA Glutamate decarboxylase (GD) (E.C. 4.1.1.15.) Oxalacetate Glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) (E.C. 1.4.1.2.) Glutamate oxalacetate transaminase (GOT) (E.C. 2.6.1.1.) NH4 + NADH Aspartate α-Ketoglutarate CO2 NH4 + ATP

Region-specific changes in presynaptic agmatine and glutamate levels in the aged rat brain

During the normal aging process, the brain undergoes a range of biochemical and structural alterations, which may contribute to deterioration of sensory and cognitive functions. Age-related deficits are associated with altered efficacy of synaptic neurotransmission. Emerging evidence indicates that levels of agmatine, a putative neurotransmitter in the mammalian brain, are altered in a region-specific manner during the aging process. The gross tissue content of agmatine in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of aged rat brains is decreased whereas levels in the temporal cortex (TE) are increased. However, it is not known whether these changes in gross tissue levels are also mirrored by changes in agmatine levels at synapses and thus could potentially contribute to altered synaptic function with age. In the present study, agmatine levels in presynaptic terminals in the PFC and TE regions (300 terminals/region) of young (3month; n=3) and aged (24month; n=3) brains of male Sprague–Dawley rats were compared using quantitative post-embedding immunogold electron-microscopy. Presynaptic levels of agmatine were significantly increased in the TE region (60%; p<0.001) of aged rats compared to young rats, however no significant differences were detected in synaptic levels in the PFC region. Double immunogold labeling indicated that agmatine and glutamate were co-localized in the same synaptic terminals, and quantitative analyses revealed significantly reduced glutamate levels in agmatine-immunopositive synaptic terminals in both regions in aged rats compared to young animals. This study, for the first time, demonstrates differential effects of aging on agmatine and glutamate in the presynaptic terminals of PFC and TE. Future research is required to understand the functional significance of these changes and the underlying mechanisms.

A Longitudinal (6-week) 3T 1H-MRS Study on the Effects of Lithium Treatment on Anterior Cingulate Cortex Metabolites in Bipolar Depression

The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is a key area in mood regulation. To date, no longitudinal study has specifically evaluated lithium׳s effects on ACC metabolites using 1H-MRS, as well as its association with clinical improvement in bipolar depression. This 1H-MRS (TE=35ms) study evaluated 24 drug-free BD patients during depressive episodes and after lithium treatment at therapeutic levels. Brain metabolite levels (N-acetyl aspartate (NAA), creatine (tCr), choline, myo-inositol, and glutamate levels) were measured in the ACC at baseline (week 0) and after lithium monotherapy (week 6). The present investigation showed that ACC glutamate (Glu/tCr) and glutamate+glutamine (Glx/tCr) significantly increased after six weeks of lithium therapy. Regarding the association with clinical improvement, remitters showed an increase in myoinositol levels (mI/tCr) after lithium treatment compared to non-remitters. The present findings reinforce a role for ACC glutamate-glutamine cycling and myoinositol pathway as key targets for lithium׳s therapeutic effects in BD.

Methadone maintenance dose modulates anterior cingulate glutamate levels in heroin-dependent individuals: A preliminary in vivo1H MRS study

Mu-opioid receptor agonists alter brain glutamate (GLU) levels in laboratory animals. This clinical study used proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H MRS) to examine regional brain GLU levels during experimental manipulation of methadone (MTD) maintenance dose under double-blind, within-subject conditions in seven heroin-dependent volunteers. Subjects were scanned first at a high MTD dose (100mg/day), underwent a 3-week outpatient MTD dose taper, and then were scanned again at a low MTD dose (10–25mg/day; modified for participant comfort). Five age- and cigarette smoking-matched controls were scanned once. In vivo short echo time (TE=22ms), single voxel 1H MRS data from midline pregenual anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and thalamus (4.5cm3 each) were collected using PRESS on a 4-Tesla MRI system. Absolute metabolite levels were quantified. GLU levels in the ACC, but not the thalamus, were higher at the low relative to the high MTD dose in heroin-dependent subjects. No other metabolites differed by MTD dose, or between control vs. heroin-dependent subjects (at either MTD dose). GLU levels in the ACC were inversely related to the duration of cigarette smoking (controls) and heroin use (experimental group). Future studies are warranted to investigate the relationship between GLU levels during treatment (and detoxification), and withdrawal symptoms or relapse.

Ciprofloxacin-induced neurotoxicity: evaluation of possible underlying mechanisms

Ciprofloxacin (CPX) is a fluoroquinolone antibiotic used for treating respiratory, urinary tract, gastrointestinal and abdominal infections. There are only a limited number of studies related to neurological adverse effects of this drug in therapeutic doses. Therefore, in the present study, we aimed to investigate the influence of CPX, when administered at pharmacological doses, on behavioral parameters of rats and the probable underlying mechanisms. CPX was administered in single oral daily doses of 20 and 50 mg/kg for 14 days in rats. CPX-induced depression and anxiety were evaluated by modified forced swimming test and elevated plus maze test, respectively. Also, spontaneous locomotor activity and motor coordination were assessed by activity cage and Rota-rod apparatus. Effects of CPX administration on brain serotonin, dopamine, γ-amino-butyric acid (GABA), glutamate, adrenaline and noradrenaline levels were determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. Contribution of oxidative stress to the changes induced by CPX administration was evaluated by measuring brain catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. Our results indicated that depression-like and anxiety-like behaviors were observed only in the 50 mg/kg CPX-administered group with simultaneous decreases in the brain serotonin and GABA levels. In addition, in the brain homogenates of CPX-administered groups, increased MDA as well as decreased GSH and catalase activity with respect to their controls, indicated enhanced oxidative stress and weakened antioxidant defense system. In conclusion, repeated pharmacological doses of CPX were found to induce neurological toxicity. Also, altered brain neurotransmitter levels and increased oxidative stress observed in our study were thought to be the possible underlying mechanisms of ciprofloxacin-induced neurotoxicity.

Chronic Cigarette Smoking in Healthy Middle-Aged Individuals Is Associated With Decreased Regional Brain N-acetylaspartate and Glutamate Levels

BackgroundCigarette smoking is associated with metabolite abnormalities in anterior brain regions, but it is unclear if these abnormalities are apparent in other regions. Additionally, relationships between regional brain metabolite levels and measures of decision making, risk taking, and impulsivity in smokers and nonsmokers have not been investigated. MethodsIn young to middle-aged (predominately male) nonsmokers (n = 30) and smokers (n = 35), N-acetylaspartate (NAA), choline-containing compounds, creatine-containing compounds (Cr), myo-inositol (mI), and glutamate (Glu) levels in the anterior cingulate cortex and right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) were compared via 4-tesla proton single volume magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Groups also were compared on NAA, choline-containing compounds, Cr, and mI concentrations in the gray matter and white matter of the four cerebral lobes and subcortical nuclei/regions with 1.5-tesla proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Associations of regional metabolite levels with neurocognitive, decision-making, risk-taking, and self-reported impulsivity measures were examined. ResultsSmokers showed lower DLPFC NAA, Cr, mI and Glu concentrations and lower lenticular nuclei NAA level; smokers also demonstrated greater age-related decreases of DLPFC NAA and anterior cingulate cortex and DLPFC Glu levels. Smokers exhibited poorer decision making and greater impulsivity. Across the sample, higher NAA and Glu in the DLPFC and NAA concentrations in multiple lobar gray matter and white matter regions and subcortical nuclei were associated with better neurocognition and lower impulsivity. ConclusionsThis study provides additional novel evidence that chronic smoking in young and middle-aged individuals is associated with significant age-related neurobiological abnormalities in anterior frontal regions implicated in the development and maintenance of addictive disorders.

Vitamin C neuroprotection against dose-dependent glutamate-induced neurodegeneration in the postnatal brain.

Glutamate-induced excitotoxicity due to over-activation of glutamate receptors and associated energy depletion (phosphorylation and activation of AMPK) results in neuronal cell death in various neurological disorders. Restoration of energy balance during an excitotoxic insult is critical for neuronal survival. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C), an essential nutrient with well-known antioxidant potential, protects the brain from oxidative damage in various models of neurodegeneration. In this study, we reported the therapeutic efficacy of vitamin C in response to glutamate-induced excitation, resulting in energy depletion and apoptosis in the hippocampus of the developing rat brain. A single subcutaneous injection of glutamate at two different concentrations (5 and 10 mg/kg) in postnatal day 7 rat pups increased brain glutamate levels and increased the protein expression of neuronal apoptotic markers. Both doses of glutamate upregulated the ratio of pro-apoptotic Bax to anti-apoptotic Bcl-2, cytochrome-c release, caspase-3 activation and the expression of PARP-1. However, co-treatment of vitamin C (250 mg/kg) with glutamate decreased brain glutamate levels and reversed the changes induced by glutamate in the developing hippocampus. Interestingly, only a high dose of glutamate caused the phosphorylation and activation of AMPK and induced neuronal cell death, whereas a low dose of glutamate failed to mediate these effects. Vitamin C supplementation reduced the glutamate-induced phosphorylation of AMPK and attenuated neuronal cell death, as assessed morphologically by Fluoro Jade B in the hippocampal CA1 region of the developing brain. Taken together, our results indicated that glutamate in both concentrations is toxic to the immature rat brain, whereas vitamin C is pharmacologically effective against glutamate-induced neurodegeneration.