Botanical Garden Research Articles

Species composition of terrestrial gastropods in an urban conservation area: Cibinong Botanical Garden

A study conducted in the Cibinong Botanical Garden (CBG) aimed to reveal the diversity of terrestrial gastropods. The CBG is an ex-situ conservation area for plants and has become the green space in urban ecosystems. The area is located near the city centre and only a few kilometers away from the cement industry. Research of land snails in CBG was carried out in January 2020 and March 2023. Five plots of 100 m2 were observed using the time search method. In addition, 3L of soil and leaf litter per plot were sorted and sieved to collect micro snails. In a total of 131 specimens from four families were collected. We found a land snail species endemic to Java, Landouria sp. and invasive alien species, Allopeas gracile, Allopeas clavulinum, and Lissachatina fulica. Based on iNEXT analysis, the number of species found in CBG had reached the maximum limit (SC=1). Shannon index value was 1.76 which implies low diversity. Further research is needed to understand environmental factors impacting land snail diversity in CBG. Regardless of the presence of invasive alien species, the CBG is a suitable habitat for land snails and plays an important role as a conservation oasis in urban ecosystems.

Some Features of the Shoot Systems in Representatives of the Tribe Sequoiae, Cultivated in Russia

The article focuses on the growth rates of three extant species belonging to the tribe Sequoiaceae: Metasequoia glyptostroboides, Sequoia sempervirens and Sequoiadendron giganteum. The material was collected from botanical garden collections on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus and Crimea. During a long growing season, all three species form shoot systems of varying complexity: from unbranched shoots consisting of a single elementary shoot to sylleptically branched multi-axial systems. In S. giganteum, the shoot systems formed during an extra-bud growth period are similar to those of other Cupressaceae species and partly to those of Pinaceae. In Metasequoia glyptostroboides and Sequoia sempervirens, sylleptically branched shoot systems are differentiated into several variants: on orthotropic shoots in the upper part of the growth, plagiotropic branches are sylleptic and continue to grow after the orthotropic part of the shoot system has stopped growing. Plagiotropic sylleptic lateral shoots continue to branch into second-order lateral shoots. Similar structures are found in Araucaria and archaic fossil conifers. M. glyptostroboides and S. sempervirens have phyllomorphic branches of the same appearance as those described for Tsuga canadensis. Plagiotropic lateral sylleptic shoots continue to branch into second-order lateral shoots. Similar structures are known in Araucaria and fossil archaic conifers. M. glyptostroboides and S. sempervirens have phyllomorphic branches of the same appearance as described for Tsuga canadensis. These species are also characterized by buds formed serially below the sylleptically growing shoot. In M. glyptostroboides, the phyllomorphic branches fall off annually, and their perennial bases form a growing, basisympodially shortened shoot. The renewal bud is not located under the bark, as in Taxodium distichum.

Non-destructive detection of tree deterioration due to termite attack in plant conservation areas

Cibodas Botanic Gardens (CBG) is an ex-situ conservation area in tropical highlands. Termites are one of the nuisance organisms in the collection that have conservation value. The number of attacks and the intensity of termite attacks require more strict attention. The main problem in tree health analysis is the difficulty in detecting internal weathering due to attacks by wood-destroying organisms which causes damage to the tree’s core (heart rot) and butt rot. Arborsonic is a tool used and developed to detect and assess tree damage, especially to the trunk. This study aimed to analyze the deterioration of the main trunk of a living tree with visual signs of termite attack using a non-destructive method. Termite observation plots were made in 4 replications to determine the type of termites that attack. Observations on termite baits in 4 plots showed no attack on the baits. Observations on 12 sample trees tested in 4 plots showed low-intensity damage. Visual signs of termite attack can be used as a sign of wood decay, but the effect is minor.

Identifying a Most Suitable Growing Medium for Acclimatizing Dendrobium Orchids for Commercial Purposes

Dendrobium orchid highly valued as cut flowers. During acclimatization different growing media are being used. However, these media have not scientifically tested, thus, the effect of growing media on acclimatization stage of Dendrobium orchid type ‘TC 05’ was evaluated under glass house conditions to assist in producing quality pot plants. The experiment was carried out at the Orchid Section of the Floriculture Research and Development Unit (FRDU), Department of National Botanic Gardens (DNBG), Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Six months old tissue cultured Dendrobium plants with an average mean height of 2.4 cm were potted in 12.7 cm clay pots and five different potting media were tested. Fifteen pots were used for each treatment with 05 plants in each pot (total number of plants in each treatment = pots 15 x 5 plants = 75 plants) with the total number of plants 5 x 15 x 5 = 375 plants. Five different potting media were (T1) Coir dust+ Roof tile pieces + Sand (1:1:1), (T2) Coir dust + Granite + Sand (1:1:1), (T3) Coir dust + Roof tile pieces + Charcoal (1:1:1), (T4) Coir dust + Roof tile pieces + Granite (1:1:1), and (T5) Coir dust + Charcoal + Paddy husk (1:1:1) were used in the experiment. The experiment was arranged according to the Randomized Complete Block Design. The T1 medium Coir dust+ Roof tile pieces + Sand (1:1:1), which is regularly used as the growing media of the FRDU of the DNBG, was considered to be the control treatment. Observation on growth parameters (height, number of new leaves and number of new tillers) of plants were recorded twice a month from October 2022 to June 2023. Mean height of plants in treatment two is (6.4 ± 0.58) significantly higher than those of T3, T4 and T5 (F=5.7, P<0.01). Similarly mean number of new leaves in treatment two (5.2 ± 0.69) is significantly higher than those of T3, T4 and T5 (F=25.72, P<0.01). However, mean number of tiller in treatment two (1.9 ± 0.35) is significantly higher than that of T5 ( F=4.3, P<0.01). Thus growing media (T2) Coir dust + Granite + Sand (1:1:1) showed the best performance in average plant height, number of leaves produced and number of tillers. It may be concluded that Coir dust + Granite + Sand (1:1:1) is the most suitable media for the acclimatization stage (6 to 14 months plants after tissue culture) of Dendrobium verity ‘TC 05’ under local climatic condition in a glass house with 70% shade.

Seeds diversity of different species in the genus Rhododendron after pre-sowing treatment

The purpose of the study is the evaluation seeds diversity of different species in the genus Rhododendron after pre-sowing treatment with organic compounds. As the signs of the seeds diversity is understood the seed germination and the seedling height. The research was conducted at the B.M. Kozo-Polyansky Botanical Garden of Voronezh State University (geographic coordinates: E 39°12', N 51°42'; 168.2 meters above sea level), Central Chernozem region (chernozem soil) in 2019-2020. It has been used ornamental shrubs. The study was made about the pyrimidinecarboxylic acids effect on the seed germination and the seedling height of Rhododendron species. The diversity of seeds is manifested in their heterogeneity according to morphological characteristics (the seedling height) and sowing qualities (seed germination) of Rhododendron species. The sowing properties (germinating capacity, seedling growth) were improved after treating the seeds with the organic compounds. There is the trend of increasing the seed germination and the seedling height of Rhododendron depended on the concentration of applied compounds. The seed germination for Rh. ledebourii, Rh. luteum, Rh. molle was increased from 5 to 7%, for Rh. schlippenbachii – from 5 to 10%. The seed treatment with pyrimidinecarboxylic acids at concentrations 0.01%, 0.05% and 0.1% allows to increase the seedling height for Rh. ledebourii from 37.5 to 75%, for Rh. luteum, Rh. molle - from 18.2 to 45.5%, for Rh. schlippenbachii from 20 to 40% concerning the control. To increase the seedling height, 2-benzylamino-4-methylpyrimidine-5-carboxylic acid at concentrations 0.05% and 0.1% is most effective. Morphologically close Rhododendron species (Rh. luteum, Rh. molle) indicated similar reactions to the seed treatment with compounds of the pyrimidinecarboxylic acid series.

Beyond the Colonial Lens: An Investigation into the Chequered History of Assam Tea

This article presents a fresh perspective on tea cultivation in Assam, negating the widely held belief that the British Empire’s introduction to Assam tea symbolised societal advancement and economic growth. This article argues that the primary intention of the British was pure economic that catapulted the destruction of the thick forested areas, marginalised the native population and abolished their kingdoms. Despite this, colonial Assamese elites and mainstream industrialists have glorified the British tea venture. In this attempt of reviewing the history of Assam tea from an alternative point of view, efforts have also been made to analyse how the East India Company’s desire to maintain its monopoly in the Chinese tea trade, the Calcutta Botanical Garden’s desire to uphold the supremacy of the Chinese tea plant, and the military personnel’s quest for new sources of tea played their roles in it.

Seed exploration on Nusakambangan Island to enrich seeds collection in Bogor Botanic Garden

Seed exploration is one of the conservation strategies used to enhance the collection of seeds as natural resources in the seed bank. In 2020, we explored Nusakambangan Island from the West Nusakambangan nature reserve area, Batar Panjang coast, to Kali Jati Riverbanks. The exploratory approach and direct fruit tree sampling were employed. This study seeks to collect and preserve plant seeds and discover their biological seed characteristics. Thirty-two (32) collection numbers were obtained, consisting of 22 families and 27 genera. Moraceae and Euphorbiaceae (4 species) have the most fruiting trees in this exploration. Ficus variegata, Mucuna gigantea, and Ziziphus horsfieldii are new Bogor Botanic Gardens database collections. Most seeds (75%) we collect are orthodox and suitable for long-term storage. In addition, the specimens are not endemic or endangered trees; few still need identification. Also, this study provides information on biological seed characteristics that facilitate seed conservation storage at Bogor Botanical Garden Seed Bank.

The conservation of wild species banana (Musa velutina H.Wendl. & Drude) through seed germination technology

Musa velutina H. Wendl. & Drude is a member of the Musaceae family, which is known as the pink velvet banana. This species has problems with seed germination. The seed coat has a hard layer of the outer integument that inhibits the germination process. This study aimed to determine the effect of the soaking time at various soaking media of the seven treatments on the seed germination of M. velutina. The method used a completely randomized design with seven treatments and three replications. The seeds were collected from a fruit bunch of M. velutina in Bogor Botanic Gardens. The number of seeds was 10 for each treatment. The treatments in this study were scarification by seed wounds, soaking seeds in 1% H2O2 and 5% H2O2 for four days, soaking seeds in hot water at 60°C and 80°C for 1 hour, soaking seeds in water for 24 hours and 72 hours. Then, as a control, the fresh seeds were sowed directly without treatment. The results showed that soaking in water for 24 hours was the best method for the early emergence of sprouts, the percentage of germination rate, the coefficient of germination rate, and the coefficient of simultaneous germination.

Sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of toxin proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis isolated from soil at the Liwa Botanical Garden

Bacillus thuringiensis is a spore-forming bacterium known to have the ability to synthesize proteins that are toxic against insect pests. Currently, the bacterial protein toxins are widely used as pesticides because they are environmentally friendly and safe for health. As a cosmopolitan microbe B. thuringiensis is widely distributed in nature with soil as its main habitat. Liwa Botanical Gardens is one among the conservation areas in Lampung Province of Indonesia where the soil type and conditions expected to good for the bacterial life of B. thuringiensis. This study aims to determine toxin proteins extracted from B. thuringiensis isolated from the soil of the Liwa Botanical Garden by their molecular weights. The proteins were quantified using Lowry method and the protein profiling performed using SDS PAGE electrophoresis. The results showed that there were two isolates, Bt 3 and Bt 5 which showed close protein concentrations, namely 0.679 mg/ml and Bt 5 with 1.313 mg/ml respectively. Both isolates also exhibit different molecular weights. Bt 3 isolate has a molecular weight of 110.59 kDa, while Bt 5 has a molecular weight of 76.97 kDa.

Viability of ‘ōhai Sesbania tomentosa seeds after 3 decades of ambient conditions

Abstract The plant species Sesbania tomentosa (‘ōhai; Fabaceae) is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, federally listed as endangered in the USA and has been proposed for categorization as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. In 2021, c. 12,000 seeds from 12 seed lots collected during 1990–1992 from across the Hawaiian Islands were discovered in ambient herbarium conditions (55% relative humidity (RH) at 20 °C). International gene bank standards suggest drying seeds in equilibrium with 15% RH and stored at −18 °C. To investigate seed viability, we mechanically scarified then sowed 15 seeds from each accession at daily alternating regimes of 12 h light and 12 h dark at temperatures of 25/15 °C, respectively. Germination was observed after 7 days and ended after 34 days. Mean final germination was 88.9 ± SD 0.1% (range 73–100%). Each seed lot was accessioned into the National Tropical Botanical Garden's Seed Bank and Laboratory. In seeds with a water-impermeable seed coat (i.e. physical dormancy), such as S. tomentosa, seeds can desorb but not absorb water. Therefore, if the seeds were initially dried, although exposed to high RH for up to 32 years, seed equilibrium RH may have remained low, which may in part explain the observed high germinability. This study holds significance for managers who are working to conserve this endangered Hawaiian species and suggests that even suboptimal conditions may still yield highly viable seeds several decades into the future.

Sustainability in Aquaponics: Industrial Spirulina Waste as a Biofertilizer for Lactuca sativa L. Plants

Aquaponics represents an alternative to traditional soil cultivation. To solve the problem of nutrient depletion that occurs in this biotechnological system, the application of a spirulina-based biofertilizer was assessed. The microalgal waste used in this study came from industrial processing. Four different dilutions of the supernatant portion of this waste were sprayed on lettuce plants cultivated in an aquaponics system installed at the Botanical Gardens of the Tor Vergata University of Rome. The biofertilizer was characterized to evaluate its amount of macro- and micronutrients. The analysis conducted on the plants involved both morpho-biometric aspects and qualitative–quantitative measurements. The experiments showed that the spirulina extract had a positive effect on the growth and nutraceutical content of the lettuce plants; the obtained results highlighted that a dilution of 75% was the best for treatment. The use of the proposed organic and recycled fertilizer could increase the sustainability of crop cultivation and promote the functioning of aquaponics systems.

Specifics of Forming the Territories of Botanical Gardens as the Landscape Objects

Introduction. Botanical gardens are the special research institutions fostering the conservation and introduction of various plant species. They have gone a long way in their development and play an important role in organisation of people’s recreation within the urban nature-based framework. The research revealed, that in the botanical gardens the research activities are combined with the considerable work on the architectural planning and landscape-spatial arrangement of territories, all contributing to the rational layout and functioning of the botanical gardens. The aim of the present research is to analyse and identify the main principles of forming the territories of botanical gardens in the south of Russia, find out their functional set-up and modern trends of development, which have not been studied before.Materials and Methods. The comparative analysis of the state of territories of botanical gardens per time and space, the integrated system analysis of the architectural planning and landscape evolution features of the territories of botanical gardens of the south of Russia and the principles of their design from perspective of the landscape architecture, were carried out. When conducting the evaluative research of the territory of the Botanical Garden of the Southern Federal University in Rostov-on-Don, the graph analytics methods were used, as well as the authors’ graphic materials on reconstruction of the SFU Botanical Garden structure.Results. The main historical stages in the timeline of botanical gardens’ formation in Russia were determined. The evolution of the architectural planning and landscape arrangement of the botanical and dendrological gardens in the southern region of Russia was analysed for the first time. The results of the study allowed making a conclusion about the insufficient consideration of the recreational role of the territories of botanical gardens and principles of their arrangement as the landscape objects during their design and creation. The main principles of forming the territories of botanical gardens in the southern region of Russia were formulated. By the example of the Botanical Garden of the Southern Federal University of Rostov-on-Don, the features of its territory formation, creation of the collection stock, arboretum, etc., were revealed. The disadvantages and advantages of zoning its territory, from perspective of forming it as a landscape object, were determined. Conceptual proposals for the transformation of its territories were given.Discussion and Conclusion. The authors have systemised the data per historical periods of the botanical gardens’ formation and evolution in Russia, which enables considering the revealed features during the reconstruction of such territories. For the first time the specifics of the southern region botanical and dendrological gardens’ formation, as the landscape objects intended for recreational purposes, have been studied. The formulated principles of functional zoning of the botanical gardens of the south of Russia will enhance their architectural-artistic and landscape image. Based on the materials of this study, the conceptual design solutions for the territory of the Southern Federal University Botanical Garden of Rostov-on-Don have been provided.

Spores Morphological Characteristics of Several Ophioglossaceae and Psilotaceae Fern in "Eka Karya" Botanical Garden - Bali

Ferns of Ophioglossaceae and Psilotaceae families can be found in the "Eka Karya" Botanical Garden, Bali as a collection or naturally growing in the botanical garden and those families are taxonomically classified as primitive ferns. The morphological characteristics of the family of Ophioglossaceae and Psilotaceae or even other types of ferns can be known through the morphological characteristics of the spores. This study aimed to characterize the spore morphology of the Ophioglossaceae and Psilotaceae fern of The "Eka Karya" Botanical Garden. Observation of the morphological characteristics of spores in the "Eka Karya" Botanical Garden was carried out by a simple method without acetolysis. The result of six types of fern plants from the family of Ophioglossaceae and Psilotaceae showed similarities to the spore unit, monads. Each family has unique characteristics that can be used to differentiate each other. The family Ophioglossaceae has a variety of spore colors, trilete spore types, mostly globose-shaped (except for one species the trilobate), the average polar diameter is 28.59±2.19 – 31.00±2.49 μm and the equatorial diameter is 32.85±1.74 – 37.55± 1.71 μm, the P/E ratio is 0.79-0.87, the shape based on the P/E ratio is suboblate, the spore size category is medium and has radial symmetry. For the family Psilotaceae, has a pale yellow-green spore color, monolete type, elongate-ellipsoidal shape, average polar diameter of 26.20±2.76 –29.81±2.96 μm and equatorial diameter of 52.98±2.55 – 63.31±4.65 μm, P/E ratio of 0.47-0.49, shape based on P/E ratio i.e. peroblate, large spore size category and has bilateral symmetry. Those characteristics are valuable taxonomic data that can be used as diagnostic characters for the identification of the families Ophioglossaceae and Psilotaceae.

Comparing water requirements of urban landscape plants in an arid environment: An application of the WUCOLS method in the National Botanical Garden of Iran

Water scarcity is a pressing issue in many arid and semi-arid regions worldwide, requiring effective water resource management. To address this challenge in the National Botanical Garden of Iran, we analyzed the water requirements for the irrigation of ten tree species over the entire growth period, spanning from January 2021 to January 2022. We employed the Water Use Classification of Landscape Plants (WUCOLS) method, and used remote and on-site measurements to obtain the required data (i.e., enhanced vegetation index, leaf area index, rainfall, and site and species characteristics) for the analysis. We found that Ficus carica L., Cercis siliquastrum L., and Ulmus glabra Hudson had high landscape evapotranspiration (ETL) values, showing their elevated water requirements. Among all the species studied, F. carica, C. siliquastrum, and U. glabra showed the highest total ETL, reaching 1033, 1031, and 1002 mm respectively, highlighting their overall greater water needs throughout the study period. Further, we computed the annual net water requirement (IRn) for each plant species, taking into account the effective rainfall of 123.5 mm during the growth period of the study garden. We found that F. carica, C. siliquastrum, and U. glabra had the highest IRn among all the species with values of 950, 948, and 919 mm respectively. In contrast, Olea europaea L., and Quercus robur L. had the lowest IRn values of 681, and 711 mm, respectively. Additionally, we assessed the difference between annual irrigation values (AI) and gross water requirement values (IRg). Cercis siliquastrum and F. carica with values of −519 mm and − 511 mm had the largest negative differences, indicating that these species received the least irrigation water in comparison with their gross water requirements among all the species. In contrast, Cotinus coggygria, and O. europaea, with values of 182 mm and 125 mm had the largest positive differences, suggesting that these species received the most irrigation water in comparison with their gross water requirements among all the species. Our findings hold significance for the management of urban green spaces, including botanical gardens, parks, and street trees, contributing to the well-being of urban residents and visitors.

More than Pretty Places: Botanic Gardens Take the Lead on Plant Conservation and Education

More than Pretty Places: Botanic Gardens Take the Lead on Plant Conservation and Education

Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activity against the Listeria monocytogenes of Essential Oils from Seven Salvia Species.

In recent years, essential oils (EOs) have received interest due to their antibacterial properties. Accordingly, the present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of the EOs obtained from seven species of Salvia on three strains of Listeria monocytogenes (two serotyped wild strains and one ATCC strain), a bacterium able to contaminate food products and cause foodborne disease in humans. The Salvia species analysed in the present study were cultivated at the Botanic Garden and Museum of the University of Pisa, and their air-dried aerial parts were subjected to hydrodistillation using a Clevenger apparatus. The obtained EOs were analysed via gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry for the evaluation of their chemical composition, and they were tested for their inhibitory and bactericidal activities by means of MIC and MBC. The tested Eos showed promising results, and the best outcomes were reached by S. chamaedryoides EO, showing an MIC of 1:256 and an MBC of 1:64. The predominant compounds of this EO were the sesquiterpenes caryophyllene oxide and β-caryophyllene, together with the monoterpenes bornyl acetate and borneol. These results suggest that these EOs may possibly be used in the food industry as preservatives of natural origins.

Isolation and Characterization of Cellulase Producing Bacteria from Soil

The present investigation was undertaken to isolate and Screen the Cellulase Producing Bacteria from Soil. Bacterial cultures were isolated from the soil sample collected from Botanical Garden, Karnatak University Campus, Karnataka, India. Four different substrates like Acacia arabica pod, Bauhinia forficata pod, Cassia surattensis pod and Peltophorum pterocarpum pods (as cellulose substrate) were used in the submerged production medium. A Total of 57 bacterial cultures were isolated based on Morphology and Biochemical characterization. Among all isolated strains, the three cellulolytic bacterial strains, maximum enzyme activity were showed in Bacillus cereus (0.440 IU/ml/min and 0.410 IU/ml/min), followed by Bacillus subtilius (0.357 IU/ml/min) and Bacillus thuringiensis (0.334 IU/ml/min) to the Acacia arabica pod. Acacia arabica pod showed maximum enzyme activity comparatively other pods.

How Poor Is Aphyllophoroid Fungi Diversity in the Boreal Urban Greenhouses of Eastern Europe?

It is generally accepted that mycobiota diversity in urban greenhouses is poorer than in natural ecosystems, but our knowledge on this field of research is fragmentary. Here, we present the results of a long-term study of aphyllophoroid macrofungi (Basidiomycota) forming fruitbodies on non-native sub/tropical woody and herbaceous plants in the greenhouses of Saint Petersburg, Moscow, and Ekaterinburg botanical gardens located in the hemiboreal vegetation subzone of Eastern Europe. Over 20 years of research, fruitbodies of 58 species of aphyllophoroid fungi have been identified. Fungal species that developed on the wooden structures of greenhouses and building materials made of local wood are discussed separately. The list of fungi on non-native substrates is dominated by saprobes (93.1% of total list) as well as mycorrhizal with basidiomata on plants (8.6%). Phytopathogens have the lowest number (7.0%), and ¾ of species are widespread locally. Non-native plants are dominated by native fungal species (78.9%), while the percentage of non-native species is low (21.1%). In the three surveyed cities, the area of the studied greenhouses is 2.8 ha, and not a single species of fungi has been found twice on the same substrate. Half of the identified species are characterized by a single specimen (29 species/50.9%). Hymenochaete rheicolor was discovered in Russia for the first time and its known distribution is discussed. Only six (Antrodia gossypium, Hyphodontia arguta, Lyomyces sambuci, Peniophora cinerea, Ramariopsis kunzei, and Trechispora farinacea) local species (10.5%) were collected in all the three cities. The α-diversity of mycobiota (mean number of species per site, Shannon Index, and Menhinick Index) in the Ekaterinburg's greenhouses is 1.2-3.0 times lower compared to suburban forest parks and old-growth natural forests, while β-diversity (Whittaker Index, Jaccard Index, and Morisita-Horn Index), on the contrary, is 2.1-7.7 times higher. With the plants' age, the probability of detecting fungi on them increases significantly. In greenhouses, phytopathogenic aphyllophoroid macrofungi are collected on woody plants only, but the probability of their development is not related to the plants' age.

First report of Bot Canker (Diplodia corticola) in Pin Oak (Quercus palustris) in Tennessee.

Diplodia corticola is a fungal pathogen contributing to oak (Quercus spp.) decline in the Mediterranean and US (Félix et al., 2017; Ferreira et al., 2021). In 2021, this pathogen was detected in Tennessee (TN) causing branch dieback in Q. alba (Onufrak et al., 2022). In September 2021, a matured pin oak (Q. palustris) with wilted leaves and elongated branch cankers was observed in the State Botanical Garden of Tennessee-Knoxville (TN, US). Small sections of the phloem were sampled from canker margins of a symptomatic branch using a sterile scalpel, surface sterilized, and plated onto potato dextrose agar amended with antibiotics (PDA++) (Gazis et al. 2018). Three days later, a fungal isolate resembling D. corticola was cultured on ½ PDA. Diplodia corticola is characterized on half-strength PDA by fast growth, irregular margins, and dense white mycelium that turns dark, grayish as the mycelium matures (Úrbez-Torres et al., 2010; Alves et al., 2004). Total genomic DNA was extracted from this isolate following Gazis et al. (2018), and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), large ribosomal subunit (LSU), and transcription elongation factor 1-α (ef1-α) were amplified (Ferreira et al. 2021). Resulting PCR products were sequenced and assembled into consensus sequences using Unipro UGENE v. 44.0 (Okonechnikov et al., 2012). Each consensus sequence identity was determined using BLAST on the NCBI nucleotide database, restricted to type material. The ITS (accession OQ189888), ef-1α (accession OQ201608), and LSU (accession OQ189887) sequences had a 99.6% (accession KF766156.1), 98.6% (accession XM_020275852.1), and 100% (accession KF766323.1) identity match with D. corticola type culture CBS112549, respectively. To complete Koch's postulates and assess potential pathogenicity on economically and ecologically relevant oaks, 10 pin (Q. palustris; caliper 15.6 ± 2.0 mm), 10 overcup (Q. lyrata; caliper 15.1 ± 2.4 mm), and 10 sawtooth (Q. acutissima; 16.1 ± 2.1 mm) oaks were acclimated in the greenhouse for 1 week prior to the experiment. Five trees of each species were then randomly inoculated at 30 cm above the soil line with a 3 mm diameter plug of D. corticola (grown for 10 days on PDA; Sitz et al. 2017). To serve as a control, the remaining 5 trees for each species received a 3 mm diameter PDA plug. Fifteen days post-inoculation, seepage was observed in D. corticola-inoculated pin (5/5 trees), overcup (4/5 trees), and sawtooth (4/5 trees) oaks. No seepage from wound sites was noted in control trees. Cankers were exposed, photographed, and then measured using ImageJ (Rasband, 2012). Using a sterile scalpel, four wood chips were excised from canker margins and plated onto PDA++. We recovered D. corticola from symptomatic inoculated pin (5/5 trees), overcup (4/5 trees), and sawtooth (4/5 trees) oaks and confirmed species identity by extracting DNA and amplifying the ITS, ef-1α, and LSU regions as described above (Gazis et al., 2018; Ferreira et al., 2021). The resulting consensus sequences matched the D. corticola type culture (CBS112549) ITS (99.0%-99.8% identity), ef-1α (91.0%-99.1% identity), and LSU (96.9%-100% identity) barcoding regions. Cankers were significantly larger in D. corticola-inoculated pin (4.7 ± 1.5 cm2; P = 0.003), overcup (6.8 ± 2.9 cm2; P = 0.009), and sawtooth (5.1 ± 1.3 cm2; P = 0.001) oaks in comparison to the control trees from these groups. Based on current reports, this is the first record of D. corticola causing dieback in pin oak (Q. palustris) in TN.

An Ethical Approach to Creating Gardens Inspired by Qurʾānic Narratives

Abstract Much of the literature on “Islamic gardens” focuses on artistic and architectural features or religious symbolism attributed to the influence of Islamic beliefs and civilization. This study seeks to expand the scope of intellectual inquiry beyond traditional motifs and recurrent features to investigate the potential influence of Islamic ethical values on creating gardens. Following a brief overview of the history of “Islamic gardens” and a short survey of Qurʾānic terms denoting earthly and paradisiacal gardens, this research highlights theological and ethical principles derived from four Qurʾānic narratives featuring earthly gardens, natural landscapes and non-human creation. These principles are, then, incorporated into a holistic ethical framework for creating gardens that harmonizes theocentric, anthropocentric, and ecocentric priorities. This framework prioritizes faithfulness to God while upholding both serving humanity and safeguarding natural habitats and ecosystems as ethical imperatives and mutually reinforcing investments with spiritual consequences in this life and the hereafter. This study also presents several garden models (particularly botanic gardens and community gardens) considered suitable for adopting and applying the proposed tripartite framework. The last section of this study explores how Islamic institutions, including mosques and charitable organizations, can utilize the tripartite framework to create gardens and green spaces that contribute to fulfilling a range of spiritual, social and environmental objectives.