Boredom Proneness Research Articles

High Trait Self-Control and Low Boredom Proneness Help COVID-19 Homeschoolers.

In response to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) schools around the world have been closed to protect against the spread of coronavirus. In several countries, homeschooling has been introduced to replace classroom schooling. With a focus on individual differences, the present study examined 138 schoolers (age range = 6 to 21 years) regarding their self-control and boredom proneness. The results showed that both traits were important in predicting adherence to homeschooling. Schoolers with higher levels of self-control perceived homeschooling as less difficult, which in turn increased homeschooling adherence. In contrast, schoolers with higher levels of boredom proneness perceived homeschooling as more difficult, which in turn reduced homeschooling adherence. These results partially hold when it comes to studying in the classroom. However, boredom threatened adherence only in the homeschooling context. Our results indicate that boredom proneness is a critical construct to consider when educational systems switch to homeschooling during a pandemic.

What is boredom proneness? A comparison of three characterizations.

Boredom proneness is associated with various problematic behaviors and mental health issues. Despite its wide-ranging implication, boredom proneness as a trait-like construct suffers from conceptual ambiguity and measurement issues. We examined whether boredom proneness represents individual differences in (a) the frequency of getting bored, (b) the intensity of boredom, and/or (c) a holistic perception of life being boring (perceived life boredom). Across Study 1 (U.S. Sample, N=495; HK Sample, N=231) and Study 2 (N=608), we tested the construct validity of boredom proneness by estimating its association with measures of the three possible characterizations (convergent validity), and examined to what extent associations between boredom proneness and variables relevant to well-being (e.g., life satisfaction, psychological distress) could be reproduced with the three potential characterizations (concurrent validity). Results suggest that each of the three characterizations represents some aspect of boredom proneness, and they generally reproduced boredom proneness' associations with other variables. Among them, perceived life boredom had the strongest convergent and concurrent validity. Our findings provide novel insights into the characterization of boredom proneness and its hitherto poorly understood relationship with psychological well-being.

The longitudinal relationship between boredom proneness and mobile phone addiction: Evidence from a cross-lagged model

Numerous studies have discussed the relationship between boredom proneness and mobile phone addiction based on cross-sectional data. However, the direction of the link between these two constructs remains unknown. The current study intended to explore the longitudinal relationship between boredom proneness and mobile phone addiction by conducting a cross-lagged analysis. Three hundred and fifty-two Chinese college students (55.1% female) completed questionnaires assessing boredom proneness and mobile phone addiction twice with an interval of 8 months. The cross-lagged analyses suggested that boredom proneness and mobile phone addiction are mutually influenced, and mobile phone addiction is a stronger predictor of boredom proneness than the other way around. Besides, the multi-group analysis demonstrated that the bidirectional relationship remained consistent across gender. Given the vicious circle between these two constructs, schools should pay close attention to preventive education and counseling for college students’ boredom proneness and mobile phone addiction.

The Relationship Between the Use of Mobile Social Media and Subjective Well-Being: The Mediating Effect of Boredom Proneness.

ObjectiveThis study took users of short-form mobile videos as research participants to explore the role of their boredom proneness in mediating the relationship between the use of mobile social media (UMSM) and subjective well-being (SWB).MethodsA sample of 656 users was evaluated by the Problematic Mobile Social Media Usage Assessment Questionnaire, General Well-Being Schedule, and Boredom Proneness Scale.ResultsFirstly, significant interactions were found between monthly living expenses and the UMSM of the participants, which were recognized as factors affecting SWB. Secondly, the level of living expenses had little effect on the high-level and low-level groups of the UMSM but imposed a significant impact on the medium-level group. Thirdly, the UMSM showed an influence that could positively predict boredom; both the UMSM and boredom demonstrated a negative predictive effect on SWB.ConclusionThe findings indicate that the inappropriate use of mobile social media negatively affects users’ subjective well-being; boredom partially mediated the relationship between the use of mobile social media and SWB.

Turkish Adaptation and Psychometric Analysis of The Short Boredom Proneness Scale

Boredom is one of the basic emotions experienced by many people of all age groups. The long and frequent experience of this emotion creates negative emotions such as stress, depression, substance abuse, and anxiety. For this reason, measurement tools that measure boredom are critical. In this study, due to this critical importance, the short version of the seven-item Boredom Tendency scale developed by Struk, Carriere, Cheyne and Danckert (2015) was adapted to Turkish. In adaptation, first of all, language equivalence was achieved by following the steps in the literature. For construct validity, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed with the data collected from 496 university students, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed with the data collected from 251 students. Significant and good levels results were obtained in both analyzes. The stress sub-factor of the DASS-21 was used for criterion validity. The relationship between the short boredom scale and stress was examined with the data collected from 90 students and the correlation value was r = .57. For the reliability of the adapted scale, the Cronbach's alpha (α) value and the discrimination of 27% lower and upper groups were examined. As a result of the analysis, α =, 91 and a significant t-test value (t = 42.328; p <, 001) was obtained. As a result, good levels of analysis results were obtained in the adaptation process and the Short Boredom Proneness Scale was introduced to the literature.

АПАТИЯ И АКАДЕМИЧЕСКАЯ НЕУСПЕВАЕМОСТЬ СТУДЕНТОВ: РЕЗУЛЬТАТЫ ПИЛОТАЖНОГО ЛОНГИТЮДНОГО ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ

The current study was aimed to examine the impact of psychological adjustment / maladjustment on the academic performance of Russian university students. Previous studies have shown that academic performance is closely related to alienation from study, study engagement, academic motivation, perceived stress, academic control, and boredom proneness. Some researchers also have suggested that adolescent apathy may be the risk factor for academic failure among university students. In turn, the American psychologist R. Handelman defined adolescent apathy as a specific state of lack of goal-setting, energy and interest, indifference to changes and experience of difficulties in making decisions in young adults [27]. In September 2019, 103 students (73 females and 30 males) aged 16 to 21 years from several Moscow universities filled out instruments assessing adolescent apathy, alienation from study, study engagement, academic motivation, perceived stress, academic control, and boredom proneness. The study was conducted at seminars in psychological disciplines. All study participants received bonus points in these disciplines. In January 2019, based on the results of the examination session, an average score was calculated for each study participant. This score became a criterion for academic performance of university students. There were no statistically significant age and gender differences in the scores of psychological adjustment / maladjustment. The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that adolescent apathy was the single indicator that affects the academic performance of university students. Thus, the higher scores of adolescent apathy university students showed at the beginning of the academic year, the lower the average scores they received for the first exam session. Based on these data, it was concluded that adolescent apathy is a risk factor for academic failure and can serve as a target for preventive and interventional measures related to academic failure among Russian university students. Currently, in foreign practice, programs and recommendations are being developed and implemented for teachers of higher educational institutions who are faced with the adolescent apathy outcomes. Perhaps this study, which has proved the importance of adolescent apathy in the context of academic failure among university students, will be the first step towards the development and implementation of similar programs and recommendations for Russian educational institutions.

The map of cognitive processes in boredom: multiple mediation models.

Trait boredom is associated with several internalizing and externalizing problems. Addressing existing research gaps in the field, the present study investigated the map of cognitive processes for boredom, based on the rational emotive behaviour therapy model (REBT). The general aim of the study was to investigate the organization of irrational and rational evaluative cognitions related to boredom, and the association between boredom and depression symptoms and state/trait anxiety. The 233 participants (84% women) completed online scales of evaluative cognitions, trait boredom, trait/state anxiety and depression. Multiple mediation models via the SPSS extension PROCESS were employed. The REBT psychopathology and psychological health models were partially confirmed, as the evaluative primary cognitions predicted positively and significantly the secondary ones in both cases. Low frustration tolerance (LFT) and global evaluations (GE), and frustration tolerance (FT), respectively, had significant effects. We found a positive significant association between boredom proneness and the negative dysfunctional emotions investigated. Both results offer further support for the hierarchy of cognitions and the distinction between the level of irrationality and rationality in REBT. This is the first attempt to assess a cognitive map of boredom, underlining the importance of (L)FT in relation to boredom. The significance of GE in boredom suggests that people might see themselves responsible, or even blame themselves, others or life itself while bored. The associations of boredom with anxiety and depression are relevant, as its role in those contexts is not yet fully understood.

Boredom Proneness and Self-Control as Unique Risk Factors in Achievement Settings.

The state of boredom arises when we have the desire to be engaged in goal pursuit, but for whatever reason we cannot fulfil that desire. Boredom proneness is characterized by both frequent and intense feelings of boredom and is an enduring individual difference trait associated with a raft of negative outcomes. There has been some work in educational settings, but relatively little is known about the consequences of boredom proneness for learning. Here we explored the unique contributions of boredom proneness, self-control and self-esteem to undergraduate self-reported higher grade point average (GPA). Within educational settings, prior research has shown self-control and self-esteem to be associated with better academic performance. In contrast, boredom proneness is associated with lower levels of self-control and self-esteem. Our analyses replicate those previous findings showing that self-control acts as a positive predictor of GPA. Importantly, we further demonstrated, for the first time, that boredom proneness has a unique contribution to GPA over and above the contribution of self-control, such that as boredom proneness increases, GPA decreases. We discuss potential mechanisms through which boredom proneness may influence academic performance.

Too bored for sports? Adaptive and less-adaptive latent personality profiles for exercise behavior

Physical exercise is an effective tool for improving public health, but the general population exercises too little. Drawing on recent theorizing on the combined role of boredom and self-control in guiding goal-directed behavior, we test the hypothesis that individual differences in boredom and self-control differentiate high from low exercisers. The role of boredom as a non-adaptive disposition is of particular interest, because research on boredom in sports is scarce. Here, we investigate the role of such individual differences in self-reported weekly exercise behavior (in minutes) in a sample of N = 507 participants (n = 200 female, Mage = 36.43 (±9.54)). We used the robust variant of Mahalanobis distance to detect and remove n = 51 multivariate outliers and then performed latent profile analysis to assess if boredom (boredom proneness; exercise-related boredom) and self-control (trait self-control; if-then planning) combine into identifiable latent profiles. In line with theoretical considerations, the Bayesian Information Criterion favored a solution with two latent profiles. One profile was characterized by higher-than-average exercise-related boredom and boredom proneness and lower-than-average self-control and if-then planning values. This pattern was reversed for the second profile. A one-sided Bayesian two-sample t-test supported the hypothesis that the first profile is associated with less exercise behavior than the second profile, BF = 16.93. Our results foster the notion of self-control and if-then planning as adaptive dispositions. More importantly, they point to an important role of boredom in the exercise setting: exercise-related boredom and getting easily bored in general are associated with less exercise activity. This is in line with recent theorizing on boredoms' and self-controls’ function in guiding goal-directed behavior.

Boredom in the COVID-19 pandemic: Trait boredom proneness, the desire to act, and rule-breaking

The state of boredom presents a conundrum: When bored, we want to engage with an activity, but we don't want to engage with whatever is currently available. This conflict is exacerbated when external factors impose restrictions on the range of behaviors we can engage in, which is precisely the scenario we are currently facing, at a global level, during this period of social isolation in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. We collected data from 924 North American participants (530 Male, Mean age = 37.7 years) using the internet-based Mturk platform to examine the relation between self-reports of boredom proneness (using the Short Boredom-Proneness Scale) and individual responses to questions about compliance with social-distancing requirements during the COVID-19 pandemic. Our sample replicated recent findings in boredom research, including a negative correlation between boredom proneness and self-control. We also provide novel evidence that highly boredom prone people have been more likely to break the rules of social isolation in a variety of ways (e.g., fewer hours spent in social isolation, poor adherence to social distancing as evidenced by increased likelihood of holding a social gathering and coming into proximity with more people than recommended). We further demonstrated that boredom proneness substantially mediates the association between self-control and rule-breaking. These results indicate that boredom proneness is a critical factor to consider when encouraging adherence to social isolation.

A German Validation of Four Questionnaires Crucial to the Study of Time Perception: BPS, CFC-14, SAQ, and MQT.

We aimed to validate four established questionnaires related to time perception in German (Consideration of Future Consequences-14 scale (CFC-14), Boredom Proneness Scale (BPS), Metacognitive Questionnaire on Time (MQT), and Self-Awareness Questionnaire (SAQ)) using a back-translation method. Exploratory factor analyses were conducted on the data of 273 German-speaking participants to evaluate the factorial structures. Internal consistencies indicated good reliability values of the questionnaires and the respective subscales, except for the MQT. Intercorrelations between the questionnaires were examined to test their external validities and gain additional insight into the associations among the constructs. The consideration of future consequences was negatively linked to boredom proneness, whereas interoceptive awareness of one’s bodily sensations was positively associated with boredom proneness. Additionally, interoceptive awareness was linked to metacognitive beliefs about which factors influence time perception. The results are discussed in regard to human time perception. Conclusion: The validated German questionnaires can now be used in research projects. Initial observations on how the questionnaires are related to each other fit the current knowledge on how human time perception works, yielding the first evidence for the external validity of the German versions of these established questionnaires. For evidence of criterion validity, future studies should more thoroughly investigate the external validities analyzing the correlations with other validated measures.

The relationship between perceived stress and emotional distress during the COVID-19 outbreak: Effects of boredom proneness and coping style

The outbreak of a novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic was a great threat to the physical and mental health of the general population. Our research aimed to investigate the relationship between perceived stress and emotional distress during the initial outbreak. Furthermore, potential risks and protective factors, i.e., coping and boredom proneness, of stress-related emotional distress were also explored. Data from 3233 participants in China were collected through an online survey platform during the initial outbreak of the COVID-19 from January 31 to February 9 in 2020. Results showed that higher perceived stress was associated with more emotional distress including depression, fear, compulsion-anxiety, neurasthenia, and hypochondria. Boredom proneness significantly and positively mediated the relationship between perceived stress and emotional distress. Moreover, coping style moderated the stress-emotional distress relationship, i.e., individuals who mainly adopted positive coping strategies suffered fewer symptoms of depression, compulsion-anxiety, and neurasthenia under stress, while negative coping strategies aggravated emotional distress. These results from the present study provide practical value for mental health intervention during the emergent public health events.

Boredom affects sleep quality: The serial mediation effect of inattention and bedtime procrastination

Boredom has received much research attention in procrastination research, but it has been rarely studied in the context of bedtime procrastination. In the present study, we examined a serial mediation model and hypothesized that the association between boredom and poor sleep quality could be mediated serially by inattention and bedtime procrastination. Boredom was measured as boredom proneness, fidgeting, and mind wandering. We conducted a correlational study on a sample of 270 participants (women = 198, men = 72) aged between 18 and 69 (M = 22.39, SD = 5.41). The analysis with boredom proneness as the predictor showed that boredom proneness predicted inattention, which in turn was associated with increased bedtime procrastination and subsequently poorer sleep quality. However, the analyses with fidgeting and mind wandering as predictors did not yield significant serial mediation effects. Rather, fidgeting and mind wandering, respectively, were associated with poor sleep quality indirectly via bedtime procrastination only. The findings shed light on how boredom affects bedtime procrastination and brought important implications to the interventions in dealing with bedtime procrastination.

Using deliberate mind-wandering to escape negative mood states: Implications for gambling to escape

Background and aims: Slot machines are a pervasive form of gambling in North America. Some gamblers describe entering “the slot machine zone”—a complete immersion into slots play to the exclusion of all else. Methods: We assessed 111 gamblers for mindfulness (using the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS)), gambling problems (using the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI)), depressive symptoms (using the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale), and boredom proneness (using the Boredom Proneness Scale). In a counterbalanced order, participants played a slot machine simulator and completed an auditory vigilance task. During each task, participants were interrupted with thought probes to assess whether they were: on-task, spontaneously mind-wandering, or deliberately mind-wandering. After completing each task, we retrospectively assessed flow and affect. Compared to the more exciting slots play, we propose that gamblers may use deliberate mind-wandering as a maladaptive means to regulate affect during a repetitive vigilance task. Results: Our key results were that gamblers reported greater negative affect following the vigilance task (when compared to slots) and greater positive affect following slots play (when compared to the vigilance task). We also found that those who scored higher in problem gambling were more likely to use deliberate mind-wandering as a means to cope with negative affect during the vigilance task. Using hierarchical multiple regression, we found that the number of “deliberately mind-wandering” responses accounted for unique variance when predicting problem gambling severity (over and above depression, mindfulness, and boredom proneness). Conclusions: These assessments highlight a potential coping mechanism used by problem gamblers in order to deal with negative affect.

Using deliberate mind-wandering to escape negative mood states: Implications for gambling to escape.

Slot machines are a pervasive form of gambling in North America. Some gamblers describe entering "the slot machine zone"-a complete immersion into slots play to the exclusion of all else. We assessed 111 gamblers for mindfulness (using the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS)), gambling problems (using the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI)), depressive symptoms (using the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale), and boredom proneness (using the Boredom Proneness Scale). In a counterbalanced order, participants played a slot machine simulator and completed an auditory vigilance task. During each task, participants were interrupted with thought probes to assess whether they were: on-task, spontaneously mind-wandering, or deliberately mind-wandering. After completing each task, we retrospectively assessed flow and affect. Compared to the more exciting slots play, we propose that gamblers may use deliberate mind-wandering as a maladaptive means to regulate affect during a repetitive vigilance task. Our key results were that gamblers reported greater negative affect following the vigilance task (when compared to slots) and greater positive affect following slots play (when compared to the vigilance task). We also found that those who scored higher in problem gambling were more likely to use deliberate mind-wandering as a means to cope with negative affect during the vigilance task. Using hierarchical multiple regression, we found that the number of "deliberately mind-wandering" responses accounted for unique variance when predicting problem gambling severity (over and above depression, mindfulness, and boredom proneness). These assessments highlight a potential coping mechanism used by problem gamblers in order to deal with negative affect.

Boredom proneness and rumination mediate relationships between depression and anxiety with problematic smartphone use severity

Problematic smartphone use (PSU) symptoms are related to mental health symptoms, such as depression and anxiety. However, less investigated are current psychopathology-related processes in mediating these relationships. We analyzed boredom proneness and rumination, two variables involving negative affectivity, as possible mediators between mental health and PSU severity. We recruited 1097 Chinese university students to complete online questionnaires measuring levels of PSU, smartphone use frequency (SUF), depressive and anxious symptoms, boredom proneness and rumination. Structural equation modeling demonstrated that boredom proneness and rumination were significantly related to both SUF and PSU severity. SUF inversely mediated relations between boredom proneness and PSU severity, but positively accounted for relations between rumination and PSU levels. This is one of few studies testing boredom proneness or rumination in relation to PSU severity. Boredom proneness and rumination may be important variables involving negative affectivity, explaining why some depressed or anxious individuals overuse their smartphones.

Revalidating the Boredom Proneness Scales Short From (BPS-SF)

Boredom proneness is a predictor of depression, loneliness, and job dissatisfaction. As such, the methods of measuring boredom proneness have gained additional scrutiny particularly regarding their little-understood psychometric properties and a heavy reliance on university student samples. The aim of the current research is to revalidate Vodanovich, Wallace and Kass's 12-item Boredom Proneness Scale Short From (BFS-SF; 2005) with a public consumer panel. We present three studies on two large-scale online surveys (n = 970) respondents from general public to test the dimensionality, reliability, and validity of the BFS-SF. Study 1 confirmed the two-factor model of the BFS. Study 2 validated BFS-SF against potential confounds of state boredom and curiosity. Study 3 demonstrated measurement invariance across samples and genders using the combined samples. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that the BFS-SF can be further reduced to 9 items, is well explained by a two-factor model, and most importantly it is valid and reliable measurement of boredom proneness.

The Effect of Boredom Proneness on Smartphone Addiction and Impulse Purchasing: A Field Study with Young Consumers in Turkey

The study seeks to understand the effects of boredom proneness on impulse purchasing and smartphone addiction of young consumers. Moreover, the possible mediating role of smartphone addiction is tested for the effect of boredom proneness on impulse purchasing. Nowadays, the effect of emotions on human behavior is generally accepted, and boredom is one of the important and common problematic feelings or moods at various levels of life due to factors like unemployment, not being able to work in a suitable job, not getting appropriate education matching individual abilities, monotony of tasks, and feeling life is meaningless. Investigating the effect of boredom on specific consumer behavior would increase our knowledge about consumer behavior. For the research, a survey was conducted 313 students from Kirikkale University, Keskin Vocational High School; the data were collected by convenience sampling method. The data were processed through statistical tools like exploratory factor analysis, coefficient alphas, and regression analysis. The results of the study reveal that boredom proneness affects impulse purchasing and smartphone addiction. In addition, it is understood that smartphone addiction plays a mediating role in the effect of boredom proneness on impulse purchasing. These results indicate that boredom can be an important factor affecting certain negative consumer behaviors.

High Boredom Proneness and Low Trait Self-Control Impair Adherence to Social Distancing Guidelines during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Social distancing during the coronavirus-disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is crucial to reduce the spread of the virus. However, its effectiveness hinges on adherence by individuals who face substantial burdens from the required behavioral restrictions. Here, we investigate sources of individual variation in adhering to social distancing guidelines. In a high-powered study (N = 895), we tested direct and indirect effects of boredom and self-control on adherence. The results showed that both traits were important predictors of adherence but the underlying mechanisms differed. Specifically, individuals high in boredom perceived social distancing as more difficult, which in turn reduced their adherence (i.e., a mediated effect). In contrast, individuals high in self-control adhered more to the guidelines without perceiving them as more or less difficult; however, self-control moderated the effect of difficulty on adherence. Our results are immediately relevant to improve the efficacy of social distancing guidelines in the COVID-19 response.

Autonomy Need Dissatisfaction in Daily Life and Problematic Mobile Phone Use: The Mediating Roles of Boredom Proneness and Mobile Phone Gaming.

Psychological needs dissatisfaction has been identified as hindering adaptive development, in which autonomy need dissatisfaction, as one core component, may be associated with adolescents’ maladaptive online behaviors. Sporadic research has examined the association between autonomy need dissatisfaction and problematic mobile phone use (PMPU). Boredom proneness and mobile phone gaming were suggested to be linked to this association. This study aimed to examine the mediating effects of boredom proneness and mobile phone gaming in the association between autonomy need dissatisfaction and PMPU. A total of 358 secondary school students completed questionnaires at three waves; autonomy need dissatisfaction was measured in time 1 (T1); boredom proneness and mobile phone gaming were measured one year later (time 2, T2); PMPU was measured two years later (time 3, T3). The structural equation model results showed that T1 autonomy need dissatisfaction not only directly predicted T3 PMPU, but also exerted effects via the mediating role of T2 boredom proneness and the chain mediating role of T2 boredom proneness and T2 mobile phone gaming. These findings reveal the unique role of specific psychological need in engaging PMPU, which provides support to targeted interventions, such that promoting autonomy need satisfaction may be an instrumental procedure to prevent adolescents from addiction-like online behaviors.