Bone Scaffolds Research Articles

Fabrication of 3D printed hydroxyapatite/polymeric bone scaffold

ABSTRACT Reconstruction in cases of osteoporosis or accidents often requires the use of synthetic bones or scaffolds, with hydroxyapatite standing out as a preferred material due to its biocompatibility. This study focuses on the production and characterization of hydroxyapatite-coated 3D-printed bone scaffolds. The 3D-printed structures were fabricated by blending hydroxyapatite powder, synthesized through the solution combustion technique, with a liquid photopolymer, followed by exposure to UV irradiation. The resulting hydroxyapatite/photopolymer scaffolds were characterized by a uniform distribution of fine hydroxyapatite powder on the surface. Subsequently, these scaffolds underwent coating with a hydroxyapatite slurry, experimenting with various coating and sintering conditions. Despite the decomposition of the photopolymer during the sintering process, the coated scaffold displayed an increased thickness of the infill line within the pattern, resulting in reduced void size and enhanced compressive strength. Weibull analysis of the compressive strength indicated a high likelihood of survival at 4 MPa, falling within the acceptable range for cancellous bone strength. This comprehensive study showcased the potential of hydroxyapatite-coated 3D-printed bone scaffolds with a favorable microstructure and mechanical strength, making them promising for applications in bone reconstruction.

Strong and tough β-TCP/PCL composite scaffolds with gradient structure for bone tissue engineering: Development and evaluation

Bioactive ceramic bone scaffolds are limited by their brittleness. To address this limitation, we developed a new method for preparing β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP)/polycaprolactone (PCL) porous composite scaffolds with a gradient structure using digital light processing technology and an impregnation process. The composite scaffolds exhibited compressive strength comparable to that of pure β-TCP scaffolds but with substantially higher toughness and reliability, especially during in vitro degradation. Owing to the gradient structure, the composite scaffolds could gradually shift from high strength and stiffness to moderate strength and low stiffness, which is beneficial for bone healing and remodeling. In femoral condyle defects without mechanical stimulation, the β-TCP/PCL composite scaffolds exhibited slightly lower cellular compatibility and osteoinductive ability than those of the pure β-TCP scaffolds. However, in radial defects, composite scaffolds demonstrated a better mechanical response and bone growth capacity. The composite scaffolds maintained their structural integrity after 2–4 months, whereas the β-TCP scaffolds fractured within 2 months. This study provides a novel methodology for the development of effective scaffold fabrication strategies for load-bearing or large segmental defects with complex stress applications for use in bone healing and remodeling.

Fabrication and enhanced degradation behavior of sinterless porous apatite scaffolds with centrosymmetric structure

The primary component of natural bone minerals, hydroxyapatite (HA), has been the subject of research on materials for bone implants. Sintered HA scaffolds, on the other hand, degrade slowly after implantation and exhibit a high degree of crystallization at high temperatures, making it challenging to match the rate at which new bone grows. In this study, the benefit of self-curing calcium phosphate bone cement was employed to create porous apatite scaffolds without sintering. The lamellar pore structure was created by directional freeze-casting, and the enhanced specific surface area aided the in-situ hydration process. The crystallinity of sinterless porous apatite scaffolds diminishes when the TTCP and DCPD molar ratios drop. When the molar ratio is adjusted to 1:2.25, the crystallinity of the fabricated scaffold is reduced to 63.99 %, and 10.21 % can be degraded in 30 days. The degradation of porous scaffolds in simulated body fluids mainly depends on the rapid dissolution and transformation of solid phase powders in the early hydration reaction and the slow diffusion of the apatite in the later stage. The compressive strength of the porous scaffold is 5.3 MPa and its elastic modulus is 0.68 GPa. After 14 days of degradation, the compressive strength was 4.0 MPa and the elastic modulus was 0.64 GPa, which was still within the applicable range of cancellous bone repair. It has a promising application prospect as a substitute scaffold for absorbable cancellous bone.

Comparative Evaluation of the Differentiation and Proliferation Potential of Dental Pulp Stem Cells on Hydroxyapatite/Beta-Tricalcium Bone Graft and Bovine Bone Graft: An In Vitro Study.

Stem cells of mesenchymal origin have good proliferative capacity when compared to other stem cell types. Dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) are a variety of mesenchymal cells obtained from the pulpal tissue of teeth and are abundantly available and easy to obtain. DPSCs facilitate and improve the formation of new bone using different bone graft scaffolds. This present study aims to evaluate and compare the osteogenic potential of DPSCs on alloplastic and xenogeneic bone grafts. Hydroxyapatite and beta-tricalcium bone graft and bovine bone graft were used in a triplicate manner in the laboratory. DPSCs were obtained from the pulpal tissue of extracted third molars in the laboratory. The cytotoxicity, osteogenic potential, and difference in the rate of proliferation of mesenchymal cells on the biomaterials were assessed. Darker purple staining was seen in the case of hydroxyapatite/beta-tricalcium bone graft on MTT colorimetric assay stating that there was an increase in cell viability in hydroxyapatite/beta-tricalcium bone graft as compared to the bovine bone graft. Hydroxyapatite/beta-tricalcium bone graft showed more osteogenic potential as compared to the bovine bone graft as a higher degree of red staining was seen in Alizarin staining. Higher cell viability and higher osteogenic proliferation and differentiation were seen on the hydroxyapatite/beta-tricalcium bone graft compared to the bovine bone scaffold.

Enhancing Guided Bone Regeneration with a Novel Carp Collagen Scaffold: Principles and Applications.

Bone defects resulting from trauma, surgery, and congenital, infectious, or oncological diseases are a functional and aesthetic burden for patients. Bone regeneration is a demanding procedure, involving a spectrum of molecular processes and requiring the use of various scaffolds and substances, often yielding an unsatisfactory result. Recently, the new collagen sponge and its structural derivatives manufactured from European carp (Cyprinus carpio) were introduced and patented. Due to its fish origin, the novel scaffold poses no risk of allergic reactions or transfer of zoonoses and additionally shows superior biocompatibility, mechanical stability, adjustable degradation rate, and porosity. In this review, we focus on the basic principles of bone regeneration and describe the characteristics of an "ideal" bone scaffold focusing on guided bone regeneration. Moreover, we suggest several possible applications of this novel material in bone regeneration processes, thus opening new horizons for further research.

Fabrikasi dan Pencirian Kerangka 3D Polimer-Bioseramik Berliang untuk Aplikasi Kejuruteraan Tisu

This technical paper explains the fabrication and chacterization method of a three-dimensional bone scaffold composed of porous bioceramics and natural polymers for bone tissue engineering applications. In brief, hydroxyapatite (HA) and beta-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) were mixed in a 7:3 ratio and fabricated as the porous bioceramic framework, while gelatin or collagen was used as an additional polymer on the bioceramic framework. Various techniques have been explored for creating pores within the bone scaffold. Micro-computed tomography scan results demonstrate that sacrificial template and binder techniques successfully produce uniform porous bone scaffolds. The average porosity for the scaffolds (n=6) is 52.36% ± 3.2, with 51.27% ± 3.3 being interconnected. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) confirm that there is no characteristic chemical structure transformation in the bioceramic. The PO₄³⁻ and HPO₄³⁻ groups are retained in the HA/β-TCP bioceramic after sintering at a high temperature of 1300°C. Polymers are successfully incorporated into the porous bioceramic framework through negative pressure followed by positive pressure. Mechanical testing results show that the maximum compressive strength of the collagen-free bioceramic framework is 1.750 ± 0.212 MPa, while the collagen-containing bioceramic framework is higher at 1.905 ± 0.007 MPa. The corresponding maximum compressive strain for the collagen-free bioceramic framework is 1.565 ± 0.757%, whereas the collagen-containing bioceramic framework is approximately three times higher, at 5.540 ± 1.032%. In conclusion, the porous HA/β-TCP bioceramic scaffold is compatible with tissue engineering applications and can enhance the mechanical strength of the bioceramic scaffold to resemble cancellous bone mechanical strength.

3D Printed Multifunctional Biomimetic Bone Scaffold Combined with TP-Mg Nanoparticles for the Infectious Bone Defects Repair.

Infected bone defects are one of the most challenging problems in the treatment of bone defects due to the high antibiotic failure rate and the lack of ideal bone grafts. In this paper, inspired by clinical bone cement filling treatment, α-c phosphate (α-TCP) with self-curing properties is composited with β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) and constructed a bionic cancellous bone scaffolding system α/β-tricalcium phosphate (α/β-TCP) by low-temperature 3D printing, and gelatin is preserved inside the scaffolds as an organic phase, and later loaded with a metal-polyphenol network structure of tea polyphenol-magnesium (TP-Mg) nanoparticles. The scaffolds mimic the structure and components of cancellous bone with high mechanical strength (>100MPa) based on α-TCP self-curing properties through low-temperature 3D printing. Meanwhile, the scaffolds loaded with TP-Mg exhibit significant inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus (S.aureus) and promote the transition of macrophages from M1 pro-inflammatory to M2 anti-inflammatory phenotype. In addition, the composite scaffold also exhibits excellent bone-enhancing effects based on the synergistic effect of Mg2+ and Ca2+. In this study, a multifunctional ceramic scaffold (α/β-TCP@TP-Mg) that integrates anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and osteoinduction is constructed, which promotes late bone regenerative healing while modulating the early microenvironment of infected bone defects, has a promising application in the treatment of infected bone defects.

Correction: Gonçalves et al. Antimicrobial Activity of Bovine Bone Scaffolds Impregnated with Silver Nanoparticles on New Delhi Metallo-β-Lactamase-Producing Gram-Negative Bacilli Biofilms. Compounds 2023, 3, 584–595

The author would like to make the following corrections to the original publication [...]

Towards Stem Cell Therapy for Critical-Sized Segmental Bone Defects: Current Trends and Challenges on the Path to Clinical Translation.

The management and reconstruction of critical-sized segmental bone defects remain a major clinical challenge for orthopaedic clinicians and surgeons. In particular, regenerative medicine approaches that involve incorporating stem cells within tissue engineering scaffolds have great promise for fracture management. This narrative review focuses on the primary components of bone tissue engineering-stem cells, scaffolds, the microenvironment, and vascularisation-addressing current advances and translational and regulatory challenges in the current landscape of stem cell therapy for critical-sized bone defects. To comprehensively explore this research area and offer insights for future treatment options in orthopaedic surgery, we have examined the latest developments and advancements in bone tissue engineering, focusing on those of clinical relevance in recent years. Finally, we present a forward-looking perspective on using stem cells in bone tissue engineering for critical-sized segmental bone defects.

Synergistic Enhancement of Mechanical Strength and Antibacterial Activity in 3D Core–Shell Bone Scaffolds Incorporating Phosphate-Modified Pomegranate Peel Powder Within Polylactic Acid/Poly (Glycerol-Succinic Acid) Composite

Synergistic Enhancement of Mechanical Strength and Antibacterial Activity in 3D Core–Shell Bone Scaffolds Incorporating Phosphate-Modified Pomegranate Peel Powder Within Polylactic Acid/Poly (Glycerol-Succinic Acid) Composite

Effect of Sodium Phosphate and Cellulose Ethers on MgO/SiO2 Cements for the 3D Printing of Forsterite Bioceramics

Magnesium silicate ceramics are promising materials for bone tissue regeneration and can be prepared through 3D printing of magnesium oxide/silica (MgO/SiO2) cement pastes followed by calcination. Despite the growing interest in these formulations, additive manufacturing technology has only recently been explored for these cements, and the effects of admixtures and additives on such printing inks remain largely unexplored. In this study, we prepared various MgO/SiO2 cement formulations with differing amounts of sodium orthophosphate, a setting retarder, and cellulose ethers, used as rheo-modifiers. The samples’ setting properties were investigated, and printing parameters were properly adjusted. The most promising formulations were then 3D printed and calcined to obtain forsterite bioceramics, which were further characterized using confocal Raman microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, gas porosimetry, and compressive strength tests. Our results revealed that the cellulose derivatives influence the printability of the MgO/SiO2 formulations without affecting the hardening time, which can be adjusted by the addition of sodium phosphate. The use of fine-tuned formulations allowed for the preparation of 3D-printed forsterite bioceramics, potentially suitable for biological applications as cancellous bone scaffolds.

Influence of physicochemical characteristics of calcium phosphate-based biomaterials in cranio-maxillofacial bone regeneration. A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of preclinical models

ObjectivesCalcium phosphate-based biomaterials (CaP) are the most widely used biomaterials to enhance bone regeneration in the treatment of alveolar bone deficiencies, cranio-maxillofacial and periodontal infrabony defects, with positive preclinical and clinical results reported. This systematic review aimed to assess the influence of the physicochemical properties of CaP biomaterials on the performance of bone regeneration in preclinical animal models. MethodsThe PubMed, EMBASE and Web of Science databases were searched to retrieve the preclinical studies investigating physicochemical characteristics of CaP biomaterials. The studies were screened for inclusion based on intervention (physicochemical characterization and in vivo evaluation) and reported measurable outcomes. ResultsA total of 1532 articles were retrieved and 58 studies were ultimately included in the systematic review. A wide range of physicochemical characteristics of CaP biomaterials was found to be assessed in the included studies. Despite a high degree of heterogeneity, the meta-analysis was performed on 39 studies and evidenced significant effects of biomaterial characteristics on their bone regeneration outcomes. The study specifically showed that macropore size, Ca/P ratio, and compressive strength exerted significant influence on the formation of newly regenerated bone. Moreover, factors such as particle size, Ca/P ratio, and surface area were found to impact bone-to-material contact during the regeneration process. In terms of biodegradability, the amount of residual graft was determined by macropore size, particle size, and compressive strength. ConclusionThe systematic review showed that the physicochemical characteristics of CaP biomaterials are highly determining for scaffold's performance, emphasizing its usefulness in designing the next generation of bone scaffolds to target higher rates of regeneration.

Study of the bio-nanofluid heat transfer rate and thermo-physical properties of fused deposition modeling of bone scaffold dip-coated by polyvinyl alcohol/nano-diopside

Study of the bio-nanofluid heat transfer rate and thermo-physical properties of fused deposition modeling of bone scaffold dip-coated by polyvinyl alcohol/nano-diopside

A novel design method based onmulti–objective optimization for graded lattice structure by additive manufacturing

PurposeWhile performance demands in the natural world are varied, graded lattice structures reveal distinctive mechanical properties with tremendous engineering application potential. For biomechanical functions where mechanical qualities are required from supporting under external loading and permeability is crucial which affects bone tissue engineering, the geometric design in lattice structure for bone scaffolds in loading-bearing applications is necessary. However, when tweaking structural traits, these two factors frequently clash. For graded lattice structures, this study aims to develop a design-optimization strategy to attain improved attributes across different domains.Design/methodology/approachTo handle diverse stress states, parametric modeling is used to produce strut-based lattice structures with spatially varied densities. The tailored initial gradients in lattice structure are subject to automatic property evaluation procedure that hinges on finite element method and computational fluid dynamics simulations. The geometric parameters of lattice structures with numerous objectives are then optimized using an iterative optimization process based on a non-dominated genetic algorithm.FindingsThe initial stress-based design of graded lattice structure with spatially variable densities is generated based on the stress conditions. The results from subsequent dual-objective optimization show a series of topologies with gradually improved trade-offs between mechanical properties and permeability.Originality/valueIn this study, a novel structural design-optimization methodology is proposed for mathematically optimizing strut-based graded lattice structures to achieve enhanced performance in multiple domains.

Synthesis of Chitosan and Ferric-Ion (Fe3+)-Doped Brushite Mineral Cancellous Bone Scaffolds.

Biodegradable scaffolds are needed to repair bone defects. To promote the resorption of scaffolds, a large surface area is required to encourage neo-osteogenesis. Herein, we describe the synthesis and freeze-drying methodologies of ferric-ion (Fe3+) doped Dicalcium Phosphate Dihydrate mineral (DCPD), also known as brushite, which has been known to favour the in situ condition for osteogenesis. In this investigation, the role of chitosan during the synthesis of DCPD was explored to enhance the antimicrobial, scaffold pore distribution, and mechanical properties post freeze-drying. During the synthesis of DCPD, the calcium nitrate solution was hydrolysed with a predetermined stoichiometric concentration of ammonium phosphate. During the hydrolysis reaction, 10 (mol)% iron (Fe3+) nitrate (Fe(NO3)3) was incorporated, and the DCPD minerals were precipitated (Fe3+-DCPD). Chitosan stir-mixed with Fe3+-DCPD minerals was freeze-dried to create scaffolds. The structural, microstructural, and mechanical properties of freeze-dried materials were characterized.

Analysis of mechanical characteristics and permeability of TPMS and Voronoi porous structure for bone scaffold

Bionic porous structure has been widely used in the field of bone implantation, because it can imitate the topological structure of bone, reduce the elastic modulus of metal bone implantation, and meet the mechanical properties and material transmission characteristics after implantation. This paper mainly studies the effects of different bionic porous structures on the mechanical and material transport properties of bone scaffolds. Firstly, under the same porosity condition, 12 groups of bionic porous structures with different shapes were designed, including G, P, D, I-type three period minimal surface (TPMS) and Voronoi porous structures with different irregularities. Then uses ABAQUS to carry out mechanical finite element simulation on different bionic porous structures, and uses Ti-6Al-4V alloy as forming material, uses laser powder bed fusion technology (LPBF) to prepare the scaffold, then carries out compression experiments. At the same time, COMSOL software is used to simulate the flow characteristics, analyze the permeability characteristics, and verified through cell experiment in vivo. The results show that the mechanical and permeability are different with vary scaffolds. In terms of topology, the morphological characteristics of TPMS are similar to trabecular bone, its compressive strength is relatively strong. Voronoi scaffold has lower elastic modulus, which can provide sufficient mechanical support while reducing stress shielding. In addition, the permeability of TPMS scaffold is better than Voronoi scaffold, which is helpful to promote cell proliferation and bone ingrowth. These bionic porous structures have their own advantages. Therefore, when designing porous structures for bone implantation, it is necessary to select the appropriate porous structure according to different bone implantation requirements. The research will help promote the clinical application of porous structures in the field of bone implantation, and provide theoretical support for the exploration of bone implantation structure design.

Brucine Sulfate, a Novel Bacteriostatic Agent in 3D Printed Bone Scaffold Systems.

Bacterial infection is a common complication in bone defect surgery, in which infection by clinically resistant bacteria has been a challenge for the medical community. Given this emerging problem, the discovery of novel natural-type inhibitors of drug-resistant bacteria has become imperative. Brucine, present in the traditional Chinese herb Strychnine semen, is reported to exert analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects. Brucine's clinical application was limited because of its water solubility. We extracted high-purity BS by employing reflux extraction and crystallization, greatly improved its solubility, and evaluated its antimicrobial activity against E. coli and S. aureus. Importantly, we found that BS inhibited the drug-resistant strains significantly better than standard strains and achieved sterilization by disrupting the bacterial cell wall. Considering the safety concerns associated with the narrow therapeutic window of BS, a 3D BS-PLLA/PGA bone scaffold system was constructed with SLS technology and tested for its performance, bacteriostatic behaviors, and biocompatibility. The results have shown that the drug-loaded bone scaffolds had not only long-term, slow-controlled release with good cytocompatibility but also demonstrated significant antimicrobial activity in antimicrobial testing. The above results indicated that BS may be a potential drug candidate for the treatment of antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections and that scaffolds with enhanced antibacterial activity and mechanical properties may have potential applications in bone tissue engineering.

Osteogenic potential of adipose stem cells on hydroxyapatite-functionalized decellularized amniotic membrane

Amniotic membrane (AM) is an attractive source for bone tissue engineering because of its low immunogenicity, contains biomolecules and proteins, and osteogenic differentiation properties. Hydroxyapatite is widely used as bone scaffolds due to its biocompatibility and bioactivity properties. The aim of this study is to design and fabricate scaffold based on hydroxyapatite-coated decellularized amniotic membrane (DAM-HA) for bone tissue engineering purpose. So human amniotic membranes were collected from healthy donors and decellularized (DAM). Then a hydroxyapatite-coating was created by immersion in 10X SBF, under variable parameters of pH and incubation time. Hydroxyapatite-coating was characterized and the optimal sample was selected. Human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cell behaviors were assessed on control, amniotic membrane, and coated amniotic membrane. The results of the SEM, MTT assay, and Live-Dead staining showed that DAM and DAM-HA support cell adhesion, viability and proliferation. Osteogenic differentiation was evaluated by assessment of alkaline phosphatase activity and expression of osteogenic markers. Maximum gene expression values compared to control occurred in 14 days for alkalin phosphatase, while the highest values for osteocalcin and osteopontin in 21 days. These gene expression values in DAM and DAM-HA for alkalin phosphatase is 6.41 and 8.47, for osteocalcin is 3.95 and 5.94 and for osteopontin is 5.59 and 9.9 respectively. The results of this study indicated DAM supports the survival and growth of stem cells. Also, addition of hydroxyapatite component to DAM promotes osteogenic differentiation while maintaining viability. Therefore, hydroxyapatite-coated decellularized amniotic membrane can be a promising choice for bone tissue engineering applications.

Fabrication of antibacterial bone scaffold based on carbonate-substituted hydroxyapatite containing magnesium from black sea urchin (Arbacia lixula) shells reinforced with polyvinyl alcohol and gelatin

Carbonate-substituted hydroxyapatite containing magnesium (Mg–C-HAp) was introduced through dissolution-precipitation treatment of hydroxyapatite containing magnesium (Mg-HAp) based on a black sea urchin (arbacia lixula) shells as novel biogenic materials. Based on chemical composition analysis, the Mg–C-HAp formed A- and B-type CHAp, which contained high carbonate ions. The Ca/P ratio of Mg–C-HAp was 1.707, very close to the biological bone apatite of 1.71. The Mg content in Mg–C-HAp was also relatively high, with the Mg/(Ca + Mg) ratio of 0.139, which is beneficial for antibacterial agents. The morphology of Mg–C-HAp showed particles with nanosize that provide a large surface area of ion promotion. The antibacterial test revealed that the Mg–C-HAp performed high antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The Mg–C-HAp-based porous scaffolds were then fabricated using the freeze-drying method with variations of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and gelatin fraction. According to the physicochemical analysis, the addition of PVA and gelatin in the scaffold structure decreased the crystallinity of the Mg–C-HAp/PVA/Gel scaffold. This lower crystallinity indicates high biodegradability, which is good for new bone growth. The macropores of the Mg–C-HAp/PVA/Gel scaffold were appropriate for new bone and blood vessel formation. The micropores of the Mg–C-HAp/PVA/Gel scaffold can be a medium for cells to grow. The microporosity of the Mg–C-HAp/PVA/Gel scaffold was also suitable for cell nutrient promotion. The compressive strength of the Mg–C-HAp/PVA/Gel scaffold was sufficient for bone regeneration. The Mg–C-HAp/PVA/Gel scaffold demonstrated high antibacterial activity against P. aeruginosa, so the Mg–C-HAp/PVA/Gel scaffold can maintain the role of Mg and carbonate content for antibacterial purposes. The good physicochemical, mechanical, and antibacterial properties of the Mg–C-HAp/PVA/Gel scaffold represented its suitable characteristics for antibacterial bone scaffolds.

3D-printed porous tantalum artificial bone scaffolds: fabrication, properties, and applications.

Porous tantalum scaffolds offer a high degree of biocompatibility and have a low friction coefficient. In addition, their biomimetic porous structure and mechanical properties, which closely resemble human bone tissue, make them a popular area of research in the field of bone defect repair. With the rapid advancement of additive manufacturing, 3D-printed porous tantalum scaffolds have increasingly emerged in recent years, offering exceptional design flexibility, as well as facilitating the fabrication of intricate geometries and complex pore structures that similar to human anatomy. This review provides a comprehensive description of the techniques, procedures, and specific parameters involved in the 3D printing of porous tantalum scaffolds. Concurrently, the review provides a summary of the mechanical properties, osteogenesis and antibacterial properties of porous tantalum scaffolds. The use of surface modification techniques and the drug carriers can enhance the characteristics of porous tantalum scaffolds. Accordingly, the review discusses the application of these porous tantalum materials in clinical settings. Multiple studies have demonstrated that 3D-printed porous tantalum scaffolds exhibit exceptional corrosion resistance, biocompatibility, and osteogenic properties. As a result, they are considered highly suitable biomaterials for repairing bone defects. Despite the rapid development of 3D-printed porous tantalum scaffolds, they still encounter challenges and issues when used as bone defect implants in clinical applications. Ultimately, a concise overview of the primary challenges faced by 3D-printed porous tantalum scaffolds is offered, and corresponding insights to promote further exploration and advancement in this domain are presented.