Bone Grease Research Articles

‘Residues of parts unchewable’: stages two and three of a multivariate taphonomic analysis of the Dunefield Midden bovid bones

This paper presents the second and third stages of a multivariate taphonomic analysis of the bovid bone assemblage from Dunefield Midden (DFM), a Later Stone Age site on South Africa's west coast. The second stage investigates bovid skeletal element abundance and longbone fragmentation patterns at the site. The third stage integrates these data with bone modification data (Stewart 2010) to explore overall taphonomic variability between three different bovid size subgroups – small, small-medium and large. The results suggest that humans were the prime agents of assemblage formation, though carnivores are also implicated as contributors to density mediated attrition. The predominant taphonomic signatures of all bovid size classes are consistent with within-bone nutrient acquisition by the site's occupants. However, major differences are apparent between the subgroups in element representation, longbone portion abundance and fragmentation patterning. These differences are shown to reflect variation in processing/food-preparation behaviours related to carcass size. It is suggested that whereas intensive fragmentation of large bovid bones resulted from efforts to render bone grease, the small bovid bone assemblage was structured by marrow extraction. Further, small bovid elements with high marrow utility may have been preferentially targeted and treated in more standardised fashion. The small-medium bovids, most of which are domesticates (sheep), exhibit intermediate patterning between the other two, but this may be a sampling issue related to their relative scarcity at DFM.

Late Pleistocene intensification technologies in Northern China

Intensification technologies used in late Pleistocene northern China include microblades, milling stones and pottery, all of which have been implicated in development of agriculture in northern China, perhaps influenced by the harsh climate of the Younger Dryas. This paper examines the adaptive function of these technologies in the context of late Pleistocene climate and environment. It is proposed that microlithic technology was a tool of mobile foragers focused on hunting, and the initial use of pottery was probably connected to bone grease production. Only milling stones were initially a plant-oriented intensification technology, but their sparse, episodic appearance in the late Pleistocene did not lead to persistent intensification involved in the development of agriculture. It was only after the Younger Dryas in the context of improved Holocene climate and greater primary productivity that these three technologies converged with changes in mobility to become part of the agricultural revolution in northern China.

A Chronology of Bone Marrow and Bone Grease Exploitation at the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village

Bone marrow and bone grease processing at the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village (39DV2) has long been suspected but was only recently demonstrated scientifically. The current research details the analysis of fragmented bone assemblages from different points in the chronological sequence of the Mitchell site and establishes the presence of extensive bone marrow processing activities throughout the cultural occupation of the village. This work additionally details the development of an increasingly extensive bone grease processing industry during the middle and latter periods of human occupation at the site.

A Late Prehistoric Bison Processing Camp in the Central Plains: Montana Creek East (14JW46)

Bison utilization during the Late Prehistoric period in the central Plains varied from the diffuse pattern that characterizes the Central Plains tradition to the focal pattern of the westernmost Oneota. Both patterns are represented at sites in the Lovewell locality on White Rock Creek, a tributary of the lower Republican River in north-central Kansas. Intensive bison exploitation is also represented at the Montana Creek East (14JW46) site within this locality. Abundant faunal remains indicative of marrow and bone grease processing are associated with the varied, if modest, lithic and ceramic assemblages. These do not suggest use by Oneota or Central Plains tradition peoples although a date fits the Late Prehistoric period. A buried Plains Woodland component, previously undocumented at Lovewell, indicates earlier evidence of bison hunting. Together the remains at this and certain other sites at Lovewell indicate extensive use of bison by different groups.

Taphonomy and zooarchaeology in the Neotropics: A view from northwestern Patagonian forest and steppe

Modes of faunal exploitation in NW Chubut Province (Patagonia, Argentina) during the last 3500 calibrated years BP are discussed, based on taphonomic and zooarchaeological analyses. Bone assemblages were recovered from archaeological sites of the Sub-Antarctic forests and the extra-Andean Patagonian steppe, where huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) and guanaco (Lama guanicoe) were, respectively, the main staple. In the steppe, lesser rhea (Pterocnemia pennata), a medium-sized flightless bird, also was integrated into the hunter-gatherer diet. Rodents, carnivores, flying birds, and fishes also were recovered. Different processes and agents were involved in the accumulation of small vertebrates bone assemblages (e.g. birds of prey, foxes, and small carnivores). In the steppe, only two taxa of small vertebrates—birds and mountain viscacha (Lagidium viscacia)—can be related with human subsistence activities. These two taxa and all large vertebrates reveal fat-oriented carcass processing. Guanaco bone assemblages associated both with ceramic and non-ceramic technologies do not show changes in carcass processing. Moreover, the similarities in bone grease exploitation suggest boiling prior to the appearance of pottery.

Determinants and Implications of Bone Grease Rendering: A Pacific Northwest Example

Highly fragmented, mainly indeterminate mammal bone from two sites on the inland margins of the Northwest Coast are analyzed in terms of size and fracture characteristics and interpreted as the result of bone grease rendering. Methodological approaches to the determination of this activity are discussed, and it is argued that multiple lines of evidence that include these characteristics in combination with interspecies comparisons of fragmentation levels and site processing facilities are most convincing. Predictions based on intra-skeletal grease yields, or utility indices, are not supported in this case, and similar arguments based on optimal behavior models which strictly relate grease rendering to resource stress are criticized. It is argued in this case that bone grease was routinely exploited as a supplement to the staple, dried salmon, and had advantages over the better known eulachon oil in this regard.

Fat composition and Nunamiut decision-making: a new look at the marrow and bone grease indices

In his study of marrow procurement, Binford [L.R. Binford, Nunamiut Ethnoarchaeology, Academic Press, New York, 1978] stressed the prevalence of oleic acid, an unsaturated fatty acid, over marrow quantity and processing time for explaining Nunamiut selection of caribou bones. He also stressed the importance of oleic acid in selection of bones for grease rendering. Jones and Metcalfe [K.T. Jones, D. Metcalfe, Bare bones archaeology: bone marrow indices and efficiency, Journal of Archaeological Science 15 (1988) 415–423] and Brink [J.W. Brink, Fat content in leg bones of Bison bison, and applications to archaeology, Journal of Archaeological Science 24 (1997) 259–274] disputed the importance of oleic acid in these activities. This debate is reevaluated in this paper. Reexamination of the relationship between quantity of marrow in caribou bones and skeletal parts selected for marrow procurement reveals two linear clusters instead of one. Two linear clusters are also identified in the relationship between bone grease weight and skeletal parts collected for grease rendering. Bones that are selected more often than expected in these correlations are precisely those that are rich in oleic acid. Although the proportions of skeletal parts selected for marrow procurement are strongly correlated with marrow quantity, a stronger correlation was found with quantity of unsaturated fatty acids. The latter variable constitutes the basis of the Unsaturated Marrow Index, a new scale of marrow utility introduced here.

Zooarchaeological Measures of Hunting Pressure and Occupation Intensity in the Natufian

Climatic change, population pressure, and environmental stress are frequently cited as major catalysts for the adoption of agriculture. The role of these factors immediately prior to the agricultural transition in the southern Levant is here explored by reconstructing human economic and demographic conditions in the Natufian period. Thorough processing of gazelle carcasses for edible products including meat, marrow, and bone grease and the capture of abundant juvenile animals reflect intensive yet stable ungulateprocurement strategies across the Natufian. Despite this stability, a dramatic shift in the ratio of high to lowranked game at the Early/Late Natufian boundary signals a reduction in siteoccupation intensity and increased population mobility immediately prior to the agricultural transition. Contrary to current models, the faunal evidence suggests not that agriculture was adopted in immediate response to the cooling and drying of the Younger Dryas but that the Late Natufians embraced more costeffective demographic solutions for coping with environmental stress.

Comparing Levels of Subsistence Stress amongst Norse Settlers in Iceland and Greenland using Levels of Bone Fat Exploitation as an Indicator

The background to the Icelandic and Greenlandic sites under investigation is outlined and prior work on the Norse economies of the two islands is discussed. The importance of fat in the diet and the use of levels of bone marrow and grease exploitation as an indicator of subsistence stress are explained. The methodology for establishing levels of bone fat exploitation is outlined. This methodology involves the detailed study of fragmentation levels of different types of bone, study of bone fracture types and many other taphonomic indicators. The results of the study are described and discussed. On Greenland, the Norse inhabitants exploited almost all available fat from land mammal bones, leaving only the ribs. It is argued that this indicates a severe level of subsistence stress amongst the Greenlanders that is most likely related to a seasonal dearth in resources. On Iceland, whilst a certain amount of bone marrow is almost certainly exploited, the settlers appear to almost totally ignore the potential to exploit bone grease. This is likely to be indicative of a much more healthy subsistence economy than on Greenland. These results are discussed in relation to differing climate, availability of good soil, fishing practices and seasonal rounds.

Pronghorn and Bison Procurement During the Uinta Phase in Southwest Wyoming: A Case Study from Site 48SW270

The dramatic bonebeds occasionally uncovered in southwest HYoming have strongly influenced perceptions of pronghorn procurement in the region during prehistoric times. However, they provide a misleading picture of the typical pattern of pronghorn procurement. Pronghorn bonebeds are generally rare and many may even represent a number of kill events. More typically, the prehistoric hunter-gatherers probably pursued and killed single pronghorn non-communally, often interchangeably with bison when available. The remains recovered from 48SW270 dating to the Uinta phase exemplify these procurement practices. The hunter-gatherers at 48SW270 intensively butchered at least two, and probably three, bison and at least two pronghorn in the late fall and spring during repeated visits to the site. The butchering took place in an area adjacent to the habitation structure. The hunter-gatherers brought the entire animals back to the site for extensive processing, which included bone marrow extraction and bone grease production. The prehistoric inhabitants were probably operating under stress conditions.

The Fat of the Land: White Rock Phase Bison Hunting and Grease Production

A focal bison hunting economy is evident for the White Rock phase, a Late Prehistoric Oneota culture of the Central Plains. This adaptation contrasts with the more generalized animalprocurement of the preceding Central Plains tradition and is similar to that of regional protohistoric cultures, such as the Lower Loup phase. Faunal remains from the White Rock site (14JW I), including those from a bone grease production feature, support this interpretation.

Fat Content in Leg Bones ofBison bison, and Applications to Archaeology

Through chemical extraction, weight and percentage of fat are quantified for proximal, distal and medial sections of leg bones from three Plains bison. Bone grease weight is accurately predicted by dry bone weight (r2=0·981), bone volume (r2=0·959) and by density (r2=0·877). Binford's Grease Index is reviewed and found to be a questionable measure of bone fat. Results of this study and those of Emerson are generally complementary. Carnivore selection of bones correlates strongly with grease content (r=0·954). Differential yield of grease may help account for patterns of faunal abundance at certain bison kill sites. Bone grease is a minor but dependable and nutritious fat supply that may have been especially important during time of stress. As the last and the most destructive of butchering events, bone grease rendering has the potential to exert great influence over patterns of skeletal abundance.

Meat versus within-bone nutrients: Another look at the meaning of body part representation in archaeological sites

Differences between body part representation of small and large domestic stock at Ngamuriak, a Pastoral Neolithic site in Kenya, are generally similar to those described for small and large wild animals at many other sites from different time periods. In order to explore the underlying reasons for the existence of these patterns at Ngamuriak, multiple regression was used to consider the value of meat, marrow, bone grease, and bone density for predicting body part representation. Caprine body part patterns could be predicted quite accurately by marrow and bone grease. Cattle body part patterns could not be predicted very well, and patterns were not so consistent. Within-bone nutrients and density were the most useful variables for predicting body part representation. These results, along with patterns of long bone breakage, suggest that the difference between caprines and cattle resulted from differences in bone processing. Since processing for within-bone nutrients at Ngamuriak created patterns of skeletal part representation that are similar to those attributed at other sites to meat transport, our results suggest that the role of within-bone nutrients should be examined before transport based on meat value is assumed.

A Reconsideration of Animal Body-Part Utility Indices

The animal body-part utility indices developed by Lewis Binford have been used to interpret faunal assemblages ranging from Plio-Pleistocene sites in East Africa to a late prehistoric bison kill in the High Plains of North America. Little attention, however, has been placed on refining or further developing these scales of economic utility. We examine Binford's derivation of the modified general utility index (MGUI) and demonstrate that it is needlessly complex. A nearly identical index, the food utility index (FUI), is presented. It simply scales variation in the amount of meat, marrow, and bone grease associated with different caribou body parts. We then use the insights provided by this simple scale to explore relations among economic utility, differential body-part representation, and human decision making.

Thermofractographic determination of monocarbonyl compounds in animal waste fats used as feed fat

Fourteen monocarbonyl compounds such as aldehydes, methyl ketones, 2-alkenals and 2,4-alkadienals were isolated by the thermofractographic method from bone grease, tankage grease and degras, which may be used as feed fat. These compounds were identified as 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazones using thin layer chromatography and UV spectra. The changes in composition of the monocarbonyl compounds during storage and raffination of these fats was also investigated.

Theory and explanation in archaeology. The Southampton Conference

In his study of marrow procurement, Binford [L.R. Binford, Nunamiut Ethnoarchaeology, Academic Press, New York, 1978] stressed the prevalence of oleic acid, an unsaturated fatty acid, over marrow quantity and processing time for explaining Nunamiut selection of caribou bones. He also stressed the importance of oleic acid in selection of bones for grease rendering. Jones and Metcalfe [K.T. Jones, D. Metcalfe, Bare bones archaeology: bone marrow indices and efficiency, Journal of Archaeological Science 15 (1988) 415–423] and Brink [J.W. Brink, Fat content in leg bones of Bison bison, and applications to archaeology, Journal of Archaeological Science 24 (1997) 259–274] disputed the importance of oleic acid in these activities. This debate is reevaluated in this paper.Reexamination of the relationship between quantity of marrow in caribou bones and skeletal parts selected for marrow procurement reveals two linear clusters instead of one. Two linear clusters are also identified in the relationship between bone grease weight and skeletal parts collected for grease rendering. Bones that are selected more often than expected in these correlations are precisely those that are rich in oleic acid. Although the proportions of skeletal parts selected for marrow procurement are strongly correlated with marrow quantity, a stronger correlation was found with quantity of unsaturated fatty acids. The latter variable constitutes the basis of the Unsaturated Marrow Index, a new scale of marrow utility introduced here.

The effect of man on the landscape: the Lowland Zone

In his study of marrow procurement, Binford [L.R. Binford, Nunamiut Ethnoarchaeology, Academic Press, New York, 1978] stressed the prevalence of oleic acid, an unsaturated fatty acid, over marrow quantity and processing time for explaining Nunamiut selection of caribou bones. He also stressed the importance of oleic acid in selection of bones for grease rendering. Jones and Metcalfe [K.T. Jones, D. Metcalfe, Bare bones archaeology: bone marrow indices and efficiency, Journal of Archaeological Science 15 (1988) 415–423] and Brink [J.W. Brink, Fat content in leg bones of Bison bison, and applications to archaeology, Journal of Archaeological Science 24 (1997) 259–274] disputed the importance of oleic acid in these activities. This debate is reevaluated in this paper.Reexamination of the relationship between quantity of marrow in caribou bones and skeletal parts selected for marrow procurement reveals two linear clusters instead of one. Two linear clusters are also identified in the relationship between bone grease weight and skeletal parts collected for grease rendering. Bones that are selected more often than expected in these correlations are precisely those that are rich in oleic acid. Although the proportions of skeletal parts selected for marrow procurement are strongly correlated with marrow quantity, a stronger correlation was found with quantity of unsaturated fatty acids. The latter variable constitutes the basis of the Unsaturated Marrow Index, a new scale of marrow utility introduced here.

Bone Fragments and Bone Grease Manufacturing: A Review of their Archaeological Use and Potential

The presence of small bone fragments in the archaeological record has been frequently used to infer the activities of bone grease and/or soup manufacturing. This article explores the possibility th...