Body Shape Preferences Research Articles

Varying views of beautiful bodies

Viren Swami and Adrian Furnham are both prolific writers, and have, amongst a host of other recent work, produced two largely enjoyable and informative books on physical attractiveness. The Body Beautiful is an edited collection of chapters investigating into perceptions of bodily attractiveness. The Psychology of Physical Attraction casts the net slightly wider, and aims to cover physical characteristics, as well as the social determinants and outcomes of attractiveness. Both books are notable for their attempts to include work from diverse theoretical perspectives, shoehorned into two categories: ‘evolutionary’ and ‘sociocultural’. I will briefly cover the contents of both books in turn. The contributions to The Body Beautiful concentrate, almost without exception, on female bodies. The authors have solicited chapters from several authorities on diverse aspects of body shape preferences and ideals, and loosely linked these chapters in to four themes, starting with methodological critiques of the techniques used to study such preferences empirically. One stand out conclusion to be drawn from the evolutionary minded chapters in this book is how far the Waist-to-Hip Ratio (WHR) hypothesis appears to have fallen out of favour: repeated studies indicate that Body Mass Index (BMI) explains far more variance than WHR in attractiveness judgements. Only the first chapter, by Don McBurney and Sybil Streeter, mounts anything like a spirited defense of the importance of WHR in preferences. This is an enjoyable chapter, of most value for its level headed consideration of how data and statistics relate to psychological im

Effects of individual factors on adolescent obesity: Study in Turkey

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of sociodemographic and lifestyle variables, eating habits, adolescent weight perception and weight changes on obesity in Turkish adolescents. A total of 87 normal weight and 78 obese participants were included in the study. They were selected from adolescents who had no other health problems beside obesity. Underweight and overweight adolescents were excluded. Estimation of prevalence of overweight and obesity were based on cut-off points of the International Obesity Task Force (excess of the 85th and 95th percentiles, respectively). The prevalence of underweight was defined as the percentage of adolescents below the fifth percentiles of the US adolescents' age- and gender-specific body mass index. A structured questionnaire that included sociodemographic and lifestyle variables, eating habits, weight questions about adolescents' weight perception and weight changes was administered to the participants. In the obese group, the level of the mothers' and fathers' education was lower than in the normal group (P = 0.006; P = 0.001, respectively). Obese adolescents had fewer obese people in their family (P = 0.001). There were statistically significant correlations between groups for fathers' occupation, joining in cultural activities, physical exercise, feeling about body shape and food preference (P = 0.014; P = 0.001; P = 0.003; P = 0.001; P = 0.001, respectively). Increase in weight was larger in the obese group (P= 0.001) and those who wanted to loose weight but failed (P = 0.001). There are associations between obesity and level of mothers' and fathers' education, number of obese people in family, fathers' occupation, joining in cultural activities, physical exercise and food preference in Turkish adolescents.

Preferences for Female Body Weight and Shape in Three European Countries

Abstract. Body mass index (BMI) and body shape as measured by the waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) are important components in judgments of women's bodily attractiveness. The relative importance of each of these cues was examined in three countries: Britain, Spain, and Portugal. Male participants from Britain, Spain, and Portugal, respectively, were asked to rate a set of images of real women with known BMI and WHR. The results showed that, regardless of the cultural setting, BMI was the primary determinant of women's physical attractiveness, with consistent preferences for relatively slender women. WHR emerged as a significant predictor of attractiveness judgments for the Spanish and Portuguese groups (with preferences for low WHRs, indicative of a curvaceous female body), but not the British group. These findings are discussed in terms of the different cultural values ascribed to participants in the three countries.

Do men hold African-American and Caucasian women to different standards of beauty?

Racial differences in men's preferences for African-American and Caucasian women's body size and shape were examined. As expected, there was a trend for African-American men to choose ideal figures with a lower waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), which is associated with a more curvaceous figure. Contrary to expectations, however, African-American men did not choose heavier female figures as ideal. In fact, both groups chose underweight and normal weight figures as ideal. The results from this study suggest that while preferences for WHR may continue to be associated with cultural factors, African-American and Caucasian men may have become more similar than different in their preferences for female weight. Also, the results suggest that within the African-American sample, there were two subsamples with regard to WHR preferences, with one subgroup endorsing the same ideal WHR as their Caucasian counterparts. The results are discussed in terms of possible changes to cultural values that may be reflected in a change in what is considered attractive.

A comparative study of food habits and body shape perception of university students in Japan and Korea

BackgroundAbnormal body weight, dietary concerns, and unhealthy weight loss behaviors are increasingly being observed in young females in Japan. Our previous research has shown that the irregular lifestyles of female Japanese and Chinese students are significantly related to their desire to be thinner. In the present study, we compare the food habits and body shape preferences of female university students in South Korea and Japan to explore body shape perceptions in those populations.MethodsA total of 265 female university students aged 19 – 25 years participated in this study. University students in Korea (n = 141) and university students in Japan (n = 124) completed a self-reported questionnaire. Data were analyzed using SPSS statistical software. Descriptive statistics were used to identify the demographic characteristics of the students and parametric variables were analyzed using the Student's t-test. Chi-square analyses were conducted for non-parametric variables.ResultsComparison of body mass index (BMI) distributions in Japan and Korea showed the highest value in the normal category (74%) together with a very low obesity rate (1.2%). Significant differences were observed between the two countries in terms of eating patterns, with more Japanese eating breakfast daily and with Japanese students eating meals more regularly than Korean students. A difference was also observed in frequency of meals, where Korean students reported eating meals two times per day (59%) and the majority of Japanese students reported eating meals three times per day (81%). Although most subjects belonged to the normal BMI category, their ideal BMI classification was the underweight category (BMI: 18.4 ± 3.4).ConclusionFew studies have compared the health related practices of Japanese and Korean university students. The present results suggest the necessity of nutrition and health promotion programs for university students, especially programs emphasizing weight management.

Body shape preference and body satisfaction of Taiwanese and Japanese female college students

The purpose of this study was to compare the body shape preference and body satisfaction of Taiwanese and Japanese female college students. Taiwanese female students in Taiwan ( n=109) and Japanese female students in Japan ( n=144) voluntarily completed a four-part Body Image Questionnaire concerning (1) demographic background, (2) body figure ratings, (3) cognitive attitude toward body size, and (4) subject satisfaction with body characteristics. More Japanese than Taiwanese women rated significantly larger body figures and dissatisfaction with their body shape and body parts.

Clothing fit preferences of young female adult consumers

PurposeThis paper explores the relationships between body type and fit preferences with body cathexis, clothing benefits sought by consumers, and demographic profiles of consumers.Design/methodology/approachThe survey instrument consisted of a questionnaire with scales assessing fit preference, body type, body cathexis, clothing benefits sought and consumer demographics.FindingsSignificant associations were found between body cathexis (satisfaction with head/upper body, lower body, height, weight and torso) and body shape. The degree of satisfaction with different body parts depended on the body type of the individual. The level of satisfaction with head/upper body, height and torso did not vary by body type. No significant differences were found between fit preferences and body type for lower body garments.Research limitations/implicationsThe majority of respondents were between the ages 18 and 28, affluent Caucasian Americans, with an hourglass body type, who had a family income of $85,000 or more and shopped in department or boutique/specialty stores.Originality/valueUnderstanding the fit preferences of female consumers could help apparel companies to produce and meet demands for comfortable and well fitting clothes for women. The results of this research may be used as a first step to develop an expert system to correlate body shape and fit preferences of consumers.

Ethnic differences in preferences for female weight and waist-to-hip ratio: A comparison of African–American and White American college and community samples

This study examined both ethnic differences and differences between college and community samples in male preferences for ideal body size and shape in women. As expected, it was found that African–American men were more likely to choose heavier figures as ideal than White American men did. Contrary to expectations, there were no differences in chosen ideal weight between college and community subsamples. As expected, both ethnic groups chose figures with a low waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), but African–American men were more likely to choose a very low WHR as ideal. The findings replicate and extend research showing weight to be a more important cue than WHR in the mate-selection process and support the theory that African–American men's preferences may serve as a protective factor against eating and body image pathology in African–American women.

Children's weight-loss camps: psychological benefit or jeopardy?

To investigate the change in body image, self-esteem, and worries in obese adolescents attending a residential, weight-loss camp. A longitudinal intervention study, with a nonintervention comparison group of lean adolescents. A total of 57 obese adolescents (age: 13,11; BMI: 32.6 kg/m(2)) and 38 normal weight comparison adolescents. Self-esteem, salience of weight-related issues, body shape preference, weight and height at the start, and end of the weight-loss camp (mean stay: 4 weeks). The obese adolescents lost 5.6 kg, reduced their BMI by 2.1 kg/m(2), and BMI s.d. score by 0.28 while comparison children gained weight. Body shape dissatisfaction significantly decreased and self-esteem increased on measures of global self-worth, athletic competence, and physical appearance, in the camp attendees. This improvement took place without any exacerbation of existing worries about appearance or weight. While obese adolescents had lower self-worth and greater body dissatisfaction relative to the comparison children at the start of the camp, the intervention improved their psychological state. Greater weight loss was associated with greater psychological improvement, indicating the value of the intervention and the relevance of psychological change in effective treatment.

Body shape preference and body satisfaction in Taiwanese college students

This study examined differences in measures of perception of body shape and body satisfaction among 25 male and 165 female undergraduates. The students completed a body image questionnaire, comprised of four parts: (1) anthropometric data; (2) figure rating scale; (3) cognitive attitude toward body size; and (4) satisfaction with body characteristics. This study found that male ratings of the Ideal figure, the figure of how they currently thought they looked, and the figure of how they felt most of time were almost identical, as were the figure of what they thought most attractive to women and the figure of how they thought others saw them. On the contrary, female ratings of the Ideal figure were significantly thinner than their perception of their current figure, the figure as others saw them, and the figure they felt most of time. Furthermore, the female figure that women rated as most attractive to males was thinner than the figure that males actually preferred. On the other hand, male judgments of the male figure most attractive to females were heavier than female ratings of the same. Both males and females erred in estimating what the opposite sex would find attractive. Males overestimated and females underestimated the body size attractive to the other sex. Although over half of the male and female subjects reported their body size as ‘In-between’, more males wanted to gain weight and more females wanted to lose weight to present their Ideal body shape. Furthermore, males were biased toward being satisfied with their body and females were biased toward being dissatisfied with their body. Additionally, the number of females satisfied with hands and dissatisfied with upper thighs and buttocks was higher than that of males.

Visual cues to female physical attractiveness.

Evolutionary psychology suggests that a woman's sexual attractiveness is based on cues of health and reproductive potential. In recent years, research has focused on the ratio of the width of the waist to the width of the hips (the waist-to-hip ratio (WHR). A low WHR (i.e. a curvaceous body) is believed to correspond to the optimal fat distribution for high fertility, and so this shape should be highly attractive. In this paper we present evidence that weight scaled for height (the body mass index (BMI)) is the primary determinant of sexual attractiveness rather than WHR. BMI is also strongly linked to health and reproductive potential. Furthermore, we show how covariation of apparent BMI and WHR in previous studies led to the overestimation of the importance of WHR in the perception of female attractiveness. Finally, we show how visual cues, such as the perimeter-area ratio (PAR), can provide an accurate and reliable index of an individual's BMI and could be used by an observer to differentiate between potential partners.

Dieting awareness and low self-worth: related issues in 8-year-old girls.

Since weight concerns and dieting are apparent before adolescence, this study examined the factors predictive of early dieting awareness. It was hypothesized that early dieting awareness would be negatively associated with perceived self-worth, particularly in girls. One hundred seventy six 8-year-old children (86 girls, 90 boys) completed assessments of body shape preference, body and self-esteem, dieting awareness, and body weight and height. Children were more likely to advise a fictitious character, "Mary-Jane," to diet than they were to report dieting themselves. However, self-endorsed dieting was more strongly correlated with negative self-perception, especially in girls. Significant predictors of dieting awareness in girls included global self-worth (negatively), body mass index (BMI), and frequency of mother dieting (positively). This study supports the view that young girls are drawn to weight control to improve their self-worth, and that mothers are influential in this regard. This early pattern of association is of questionable acceptability.

Dieting awareness and low self‐worth: Related issues in 8‐year‐old girls

Objectives Since weight concerns and dieting are apparent before adolescence, this study examined the factors predictive of early dieting awareness. It was hypothesized that early dieting awareness would be negatively associated with perceived self-worth, particularly in girls. Methods One hundred seventy six 8-year-old children (86 girls, 90 boys) completed assessments of body shape preference, body and self-esteem, dieting awareness, and body weight and height. Results Children were more likely to advise a fictitious character, “Mary-Jane,” to diet than they were to report dieting themselves. However, self-endorsed dieting was more strongly correlated with negative self-perception, especially in girls. Significant predictors of dieting awareness in girls included global self-worth (negatively), body mass index (BMI), and frequency of mother dieting (positively). Conclusions This study supports the view that young girls are drawn to weight control to improve their self-worth, and that mothers are influential in this regard. This early pattern of association is of questionable acceptability. © 1998 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Int J Eat Disord 24: 405–413, 1998.

Body shape perceptions of preadolescent and young adolescent children

Objective: to investigate age and gender effects on body figure perceptions in a non-referred preadolescent and young adolescent population. Method: self-ratings of body shape, choices of current ideal body shape and choices of ideal older adolescent body shape from a range of line drawings of figures in a sample of 1150 school children. Results: Girls in all age groups indicated a desire to be leaner than their perceived current shape. Boys in the younger age groups indicated a desire to be heavier than their perceived current shape whereas boys in the older age groups indicated a desire to be leaner than their perceived current shape. Both genders perceived the ‘ideal older adolescent’ body shape of the opposite gender to be leaner than the ideal shape of their own gender. Boys preferred increasingly heavier male and increasingly leaner female older adolescent body shapes with age. Conclusion: There are significant gender effects in the perception of body shape preferences. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and Eating Disorders Association.

Mothers, daughters and dieting: investigating the transmission of weight control.

Research by Pike & Rodin (1991) found higher levels of weight concern and dissatisfaction with family functioning in mothers of eating disordered adolescent girls. The present study sought to extend this research by examining the maternal influences on weight and dieting concerns at a younger age. A cross-sectional comparison of high and low dietary restraint girls and their mothers was used. Two groups of 20 11-year-old girls and their mothers completed assessments of dietary restraint, body shape preference, self-perception, family functioning and body weight and height. Mothers of high restraint girls did not differ from comparison mothers in their current level of dieting, but did report more between-meal snacking and fasting. In addition, they rated their daughters' attractiveness significantly lower than the other mothers. Furthermore, families with a highly restrained daughter scored significantly lower on perceived family cohesion, organization and moral-religious emphasis. The parallel with the findings of Pike & Rodin supports the role that mothers may play in the transmission of cultural values regarding weight, shape and appearance. Importantly, it also places early dieting within a wider context of dissatisfaction with family functioning.

South Island skinks of the genus Oligosoma: description of O. longipes n. sp. with redescription of O. otagense (McCann) and O. waimatense (McCann)

Oligosoma longipes n sp is described on the basis of consistent morphological variation from its nearest congeners It is characterised by elongated digits, high scale counts, and a distinctive colour pattern The complex and confused taxonomic history of O otagense (McCann, 1955) and O waimatense (McCann, 1955) is reviewed, and new species descriptions are provided Traditional taxonomic indicators such as scale counts do not allow complete discrimination between O otagense and O waimatense However, they can be separated from each other by general body shape, colour pattern and habitat preferences

Waist-to-hip ratio and preferences for body shape: A replication and extension

Evidence from Singh (1993a, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 293–307; 1993b, Human Nature, 4, 297–321; 1994, Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 123–132; 1995, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1089–1101) clearly demonstrates the relation of waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and apparent overall body weight to attractiveness judgements of male and female figures. The present study is a cross-cultural replication of Singh's studies. In addition, sex difference meta-perceptions of attractiveness were considered. Overall results support Singh's work, which finds the WHR the most parsimonious measure of body physical attractiveness. With regard to the latter, a large consensus on preferences of ideal figures was found. Participants' perceptions of body shape and size showed both similarities and differences to those in Singh's research, and are discussed in terms of WHR as an evolutionary adaptation.

Ideal body shape preferences and eating disorder scores in adolescent women

Abstract Using the body figure-preference ratings of Fallon and Rozin (1985), this study investigated the relationship between body shape preferences and eating disorder scores in a sample of adolescent women. These young women were found to express a large degree of body dissatisfaction, which was positively related to eating disorder symptomology. For the sample as a whole, there was no difference between ratings of the ideal figure and that perceived as most attractive. However, the Bulimia and Perfectionism scales did offer unique prediction of the ideal figure, over and above the Attractive figure. It was concluded that young women with high bulimic scores wish to be thinner than what they perceive as attractive. The present study suggests that what motivates this wish is the search for perfectionism.

Body dissatisfaction, self-focus, and dieting status among women.

This study examined body shape preferences, body dissatisfaction, and self-focus between dieters and nondieters. Dieters were found to be more dissatisfied with their bodies than were nondieters. Although dieters did not have more stringent standards for body shape than nondieters, there was a larger discrepancy between ideal and current shape for dieters owing to their greater body weights. Dieters were also found to be highly and negatively self-focused on the Exner Sentence Completion Task (J. E. Exner, 1973). Moreover, dieting status was correlated with public rather than private selfconsciousness, suggesting that dieters are concerned with their public image. Taken together, these data suggest that some women may be motivated to diet in part because of intense self-focus about their current self-perception of being overweight.

Body shape preferences: Effects of instructional protocol and level of eating disturbance

From a larger sample of 120 college females, subjects were dichotomized into eating-disturbed and asymptomatic groups (20 subjects per sample) based on responses to a measure of bulimic behaviors. All subjects chose body figure preferences based on the following protocols: (1) ideal; (2) how they thought they looked; (3) how they felt they looked; (4) how they thought they looked to others; and (5) the figure they thought was most attractive to men. Subjects also completed a measure of general physical appearance satisfaction and teasing history. Large discrepancies between figure ratings, appearance satisfaction, and teasing history were found between the two groups. The findings replicate and extend recent work in the area of human figure preferences in normal populations.