Body Density Research Articles

3 Dimensional photonic scans for measuring body volume and muscle mass in the standing horse.

Reasons for performing studyAlthough muscle mass strongly influences performance, there is currently no effective means to measure the 3-dimensional muscle mass of horses. We evaluated a 3-dimensional (3D) scanning methodology for its ability to quantify torso and hindquarter volumes as a proxy for regional muscle mass in horses.ObjectivesDetermine the repeatability of 3D scanning volume (V) measurements and their correlation to body weight, estimated body volume and muscle/fat ultrasound (US) depth.MethodsHandheld 3D photonic scans were performed on 16 Quarter Horses of known body weight 56 days apart (n = 32 scans) with each scan performed in duplicate (n = 32 replicates). Tail head fat, gluteal and longissimus dorsi muscle depths were measured using US. Processed scans were cropped to isolate hindquarter (above hock, caudal to tuber coxae) and torso (hindquarter plus dorsal thoracolumbar region) segments and algorithms used to calculate V. Torso and hindquarter volume were correlated with body weight and US using Pearson’s correlation and with estimated torso volume (50% body weight / body density) with Bland-Altman analysis.ResultsScans took 2 min with < 3.5% error for duplicate scans. Torso volume (R = 0.90, P< 0.001) and hindquarter volume (R = 0.82, P< 0.001) strongly correlated with body weight and estimated BV (R = 0.91) with low bias. Torso volume moderately correlated to mean muscle US depth (R = 0.4, P< 0.05) and tail head fat (R = 0.42, P< 0.01). Mean muscle US depth moderately correlated to body weight (R = 0.50, P< 0.01).Main limitations3D Scans determine body volume not muscle volume.ConclusionsThe hand-held 3D scan provided a rapid repeatable assessment of torso and hindquarter volume strongly correlated to body weight and estimated volume. Superimposition of regional scans and volume measures could provide a practical means to follow muscle development when tail head fat depth remain constant.

Stabilization characteristics and mechanisms in a novel tubular flame burner with localized stratified property

The combustion characteristics in a localized stratified tubular flame burner (LSTFB) were experimentally studied under lean conditions. The stability limit and pressure fluctuation were obtained under various global equivalence ratios and fuel flow rates. The mechanisms driving the combustion instability were analyzed with the combination of numerical simulation. Results show the lean stability limit of the burner can be as low as 0.12 of the global equivalence ratio. On the basis of the local stratification of species, a kind of unique binary tubular flame is formed with both the premixed and non-premixed flame properties. Meanwhile, the internal recirculation heats the incomplete combustion gases distributed inside the tubular flame, thereby guaranteeing the balance between the flow velocity and the local flame speed. The amplitudes of pressure fluctuation are less than 4 kPa in the entire experimental range because of the flow laminarization caused by the large body force and density gradient. The pressure fluctuation characteristics depend on the relative magnitude of viscous force, inertial force, body force, and density gradient. The Taylor number Ta and stratification parameters Ri∗ are key parameters in evaluating the flame stability in the LSTFB.

The Validity of Relative Fat Mass and Body Adiposity Index as Measures of Body Composition in Healthy Adults

ABSTRACTHigher relative adiposity is independently associated with adverse health consequences. As such, accurate estimates of body composition in field settings are of utmost importance. The aim of this study was to examine the validity of the Body Adiposity Index (BAI) and Relative Fat Mass (RFM) as measures of total body adiposity. BAI and RFM were assessed in young adults (n = 188, 48.4% female, 21.8 ± 4.8 years, 24.4 ± 4.6 kg/m2). Adiposity was assessed using the 4C model (%Fat4C) and derived from underwater weighing for body density, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry for bone mineral content, and bioimpedance spectroscopy for total body water. Bivariate correlations between BAI, RFM, and %Fat4C were assessed using Pearson’s r. Differences between measures were assessed using a repeated-measures ANOVA. BAI and RFM were associated with %Fat4C (r = 0.668 and 0.827 respectively, both p < .001). BAI and RFM overestimated %Fat4C (+4.3 ± 6.1 versus +4.3 ± 4.6, respectively, p < .001). The large error limits the practical utility of these anthropometric indices.Abbreviation: ANOVA: Analysis of Variance; BAI: Body Adiposity Index; BM: Body Mass; BMI: Body Mass Index; CM: centimeter; DXA: Dual X-ray Absorptiometry; HC: Hip Circumference; KG: kilogram; RFM: Relative Fat Mass; SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciencesp; WC: Waist Circumference; %Fat: Body Composition.

PbO-SiO2 Based Glass Coating of PbI2 Doped PbTe

Thermoelectrics is one promising way of increasing the efficiency of machines and devices by reusing some of the waste heat produced. One obstacle for commercialization is the need to coat the materials to prevent sublimation and oxidation of the thermoelectric materials. Such coatings were designed for PbI2 doped PbTe using a (SiO2)0.68(PbO)0.3(B2O3)0.01(Na2O)0.01 based glass designed for operation at 500 °C. In this research various conditions of the coating process were examined. The effect of the atmosphere on the bonding and densification of the coating was studied using argon, vacuum and air. From the three air shows, the best bonding characteristics were from a better flow of glass and increased bonding between the oxidized PbTe layer and glass. This also created a PbO rich glass in the interface between the glass and the PbTe sample. The effect of 0, 3, and 6 wt. % NaCl additive to the solution was tested and showed that NaCl achieves better coverage due to high green body density, reaction of NaCl with the glass and removal of remaining CO2 from the glass in the form of decomposing Na2CO3. In addition, when testing the time and temperature, it was shown that the temperature of 520 °C was the minimum needed for high densification of the glass, but a duration shorter than 30 min did not allow for bonding of the glass to the substrate despite adequate densification. Finely, to obtain a well bonded coating with full coverage over the sample, the glass was coated with 6% NaCl in air at 520 °C for 30 min.

Validity of Field Methods to Estimate Fat-Free Mass Changes Throughout the Season in Elite Youth Soccer Players.

The aim of this study was to determine the most effective anthropometric equations or bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) devices for quantifying the sensitivity to change in fat-free mass (FFM) in elite young soccer players, in comparison with measurements using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), between the pre- and mid-season. A total of 40 elite youth soccer players participated in this study. DXA values provided a criterion measure of FFM. Correlation coefficients, biases, limits of agreement, and differences were used as measures of sensitivity to change. All body density, skinfold, and anthropometric equations and BIA devices used to obtain FFM data showed positive and very large correlations (r from 0.70 to 0.89) with DXA. A significant increase in FFM was shown between time points using DXA, BIA, and all anthropometric equations (p < 0.01). The magnitudes of differences were small for DXA, BIA inbody and all anthropometric equations except those of Faulkner (1966), Durnin and Rahaman (1967), Brook (1971), and Sarría et al. (1998). Six anthropometric equations [Faulkner (1966), Durnin and Womersley (1974), Carter (1982), Slaughter et al. (1988), Reilly et al. (2009), and Munguia-Izquierdo et al. (2018)] and BIA Tanita showed no statistical differences compared to DXA, with a low bias. We concluded that the equations developed by Durnin and Womersley (1974), Carter (1982), Slaughter et al. (1988), Reilly et al. (2009), and Munguia-Izquierdo et al. (2018) showed the best sensitivity in assessing FFM changes between pre- and mid-season in elite youth soccer players.

RFID RSS Fingerprinting System for Wearable Human Activity Recognition

Alternative healthcare solutions have been identified as a viable approach to ameliorate the increasing demand for telehealth and prompt healthcare delivery. Moreover, indoor ocalization using different technologies and approaches have greatly contributed to alternative healthcare solutions. In this paper, a cost-effective, radio frequency identification (RFID)-based indoor location system that employs received signal strength (RSS) information of passive RFID tags is presented. The proposed system uses RFID tags placed at different positions on the target body. The mapping of the analysed data against a set of reference position datasets is used to accurately track the vertical and horizontal positioning of a patient within a confined space in real-time. The Euclidean distance model achieves an accuracy of 98% for all sampled activities. However, the accuracy of the activity recognition algorithm performs below the threshold performance for walking and standing, which is due to similarities in the target height, weight and body density for both activities. The obtained results from the proposed system indicate significant potentials to provide reliable health measurement tool for patients at risk.

Body composition among long distance runners.

The current study aimed to examine the body composition of adult male ultra-trail runners (UTR) according to their level of participation (regional UTR-R, vs. national UTR-N). The sample was composed of 44 adult male UTR (aged 36.5±7.2 years; UTR-R: n=25; UTR-N: n=19). Body composition was assessed by air displacement plethysmography, bioelectrical impedance, and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. In addition, the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) was applied. A comparison between the groups was performed using independent samples t-test. Significant differences between groups contrasting in the competitive level were found for chronological age (in years; UTR-R: 38.8±8.2 vs. UTR-N: 33.5±4.1); body density (in L.kg-1; UTR-R: 1.062±0.015 vs. UTR-N: 1.074±0.009); and fat mass (in kg; UTR-R: 12.7±6.8 vs. UTR-N: 7.6±2.7). UTR-N were younger, presented higher values for body density, and had less fat mass, although no significant differences were found for fat-free mass. The current study evidenced the profile of long-distance runners and the need for weight management programs to regulate body composition.

The solution of landslide problems in the Saratov region

They are presented data on the development of landslide processes in the Saratov region, the territory of which is one of the most landslide hazardous due to geological, tectonic and hydrogeological conditions, deep rugged terrain, active erosion, climatic features and anthropogenic factors. The directions of solving the problem of reducing the negative impact of landslides on the condition of territories are shown, the main of which are identification and assessment of the threat, stabilization and retention of the landslide massif. The landslide hazard is determined on the basis of geotechnical, geodetic, hydrogeological, hydrological surveys, weather observations, monitoring and modeling of the landslide process. To stabilize the landslide, its body is drained using a surface runoff system and deep drainage. Then the landslide surface is level off or cut into blocks, ground properties are changed. To hold the landslide massif, retaining walls are used. The results of monitoring the development of a landslide in the October gorge of the city of Saratov, which was formed on the left steep side of the gorge between the equipped spring and the 110 kV transmission line, are presented. Its width along the front reaches 200 m, length 150 m, landslide body area 25-30 thousand m2, total weight about 0.5 million tons. The landslide is closely related to the areas of groundwater outlet, including the Oktyabrsky spring. The calculated strength characteristics of soils in the displacement zone were obtained: on contact with calcareous loams, the angle of internal friction is 36°, specific adhesion is 0.05 t/m2; landslide body density 1.62 g/cm3; on contact with clay, respectively, 10°, 2.5 t/m2 and 1.62 g/cm3. Based on them, the stability indices of the landslide slope and landslide pressure for the zone of active landslide deformations are determined. The safety factor for the calculated transections was 0.99-1.0 in the natural state and 1.05-1.43 with design measures; design landslide pressure 45 tf/m. A system of anti-landslide measures is proposed. It includes the installation of retaining structures from bored piles with grillage and retaining wall; slope profiling with the construction of a counter-banquet; the device of the surface drainage system with the discharge of water into the roadside tray; landscaping of slopes by sowing herbs.&#x0D;

Buoyancy matters: Establishing the maximum neutral buoyancy depth of Atlantic salmon

Buoyancy regulation is a fundamental process by which pelagic fish maintain their position in the water column in an energy efficient way. Buoyancy has been largely overlooked as an important factor in Atlantic salmon production as salmon have a physostomous swim bladder that they fill by gulping air from the surface. The speed and ease at which the swim bladder can be filled and emptied by salmon has made understanding how much it contributes to buoyancy difficult to calculate. Here, we used an “increased excess mass test” to investigate the maximum neutral buoyancy depth in seawater of farmed post-smolt Atlantic salmon across a range of sizes. The test involved adding small weights to salmon over time to make them heavier. The salmon compensate for the extra weight via gulping air at the water's surface to fill their swim bladders and maintain neutral buoyancy. We monitored the swimming behaviour of salmon to determine the weight at which they could not maintain neutral buoyancy and used this to calculate the maximum neutral buoyancy depth (MNBD). For postsmolt salmon of 175–2400 g, the MNBD in seawater ranged from 21 to 24 m, with some variation with fish size: the average MNBD of 175 g salmon was 3.2 m shallower than 2400 g salmon. Fish body density also influenced MNBD. The individual with the lowest recorded body density (1.043 g/cm3) could achieve neutral buoyancy 11.2 m deeper than the individual with highest recorded body density (1.065 g/cm3). We found that salmon weigh approximately 2.65% of their weight in air in seawater. Depth-modified cages are becoming increasingly popular in Atlantic salmon aquaculture; farming fish deeper requires knowledge of the basic limits of salmon buoyancy and our results will inform guidelines that ensure optimal welfare in these new cage types.

In Vivo Measurements of Lung Volumes in Ringed Seals: Insights from Biomedical Imaging.

Marine mammals rely on oxygen stored in blood, muscle, and lungs to support breath-hold diving and foraging at sea. Here, we used biomedical imaging to examine lung oxygen stores and other key respiratory parameters in living ringed seals (Pusa hispida). Three-dimensional models created from computed tomography (CT) images were used to quantify total lung capacity (TLC), respiratory dead space, minimum air volume, and total body volume to improve assessments of lung oxygen storage capacity, scaling relationships, and buoyant force estimates. Results suggest that lung oxygen stores determined in vivo are smaller than those derived from postmortem measurements. We also demonstrate that-while established allometric relationships hold well for most pinnipeds-these relationships consistently overestimate TLC for the smallest phocid seal. Finally, measures of total body volume reveal differences in body density and net vertical forces in the water column that influence costs associated with diving and foraging in free-ranging seals.

Construction and Analysis of Two-Dimensional Axisymmetric Model of Electromagnetic Tube Bulging With Field Shaper

Due to the fact that geometrical structure of tube electromagnetic bulging process with field shaper does not conform to the axisymmetric property, three-dimensional (3D) model is usually used to analyze the process which is complicated and time consuming. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the working principle of the field shaper, a two-dimensional (2D) model with current constraint is proposed in this paper to analyze the electromagnetic bulging process of a tube fitted with a field shaper. COMSOL finite element analysis software is used to develop three models for performance analysis and comparison, these are: conventional 3D model and the proposed 2D model with and without current constraint. Simulation results show that the induced eddy current density, magnetic flux density and electromagnetic body density of the two-dimensional model with current constraint are in good agreement with the results of the three-dimensional model. This provides an alternative and effective way to analyze the performance of the tube electromagnetic bulging with field shaper using a simple but yet reliable 2D model.

Identification and Assesment of the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) Generated by the most used Telephone in Peru in 2017

According to the World Health Organization (WHO) it is estimated that between 5 and 10% of the population is electro sensitive, the excessive or prolonged exposure to electromagnetic waves can damage health. Currently the electromagnetic radiation generated by wireless mobile telephony involves our daily lives, since it is reported that there are more than 5 billion cell phone users. Each country establishes its own relative national standards on exposure to electromagnetic fields, which Peru lacks. Nevertheless, they are based in standards that has not been revised since 1996. This contribution seeks to identify the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) generated by the most used mobile phone in Peru in 2017 using the ComoSAR measuring system in the GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) band at a frequency of 900 MHz. The results obtained will evaluate the behavior of electromagnetic waves by affecting the emulated tissues of body density and dielectric constant. The maximum SAR values recorded in the measurement were 0.05 W/Kg for a 1 g cube and 0.02 W/Kg for a 10 g cube. On the other hand, the average values obtained were 0.046 W/Kg for a 1 g cube and 0.019 W/Kg for a 10 g cube. The SAR values measured in the conditions of the experiment are below that what is indicated by the US standard and the European standard of SAR values.

Особливості екстерʼєру голштинських корів різних генотипів

This study presents the results of the relationship of various polymorphic variants of the GH and PIT-1 gene with the exterior in highly productive Holstein cows. Experimental animals were divided into groups depending on the combination of different allele forms of GH and PIT-1 genes. PCR method was used to determine the polymorphism of marker genes. Isolation of genomic DNA was performed using resin «Chelex-100». The reaction was carried out in a thermal cycler «Tertsyk» made by «DNA technology». The research was carried out in the Private Joint Stock Company «Agro-Soiuz» Dnipropetrovsk region. The total set sample was 48 half-sibling cows, which were the daughters of the Holstein bull Kashemir 131671771. All animals were even-aged analogues. DNA samples isolated from the peripheral blood of the experimental animals were examined. Restrictase AluI was used for the GH gene restriction. After restriction, 171 bp and 52 bp long fragments were detected in representatives of the LL genotype, and a non-restriction fragment with a length of 223 bp was found in carriers of the VV genotype. Restriction of the amplified fragment of RIT-1 gene was performed using restriction endonuclease HinfI. Fragments 660 bp, 425 bp, and 270 bp long, after processing the PCR products with HinfI restriction endonuclease, corresponded to the A allele; fragments 660 bp, 385 bp, and 270 bp long indicated the B allele. Restriction products were separated by electrophoretic method in 2% agarose gel in Tris Borate EDTA. Measurements and exterior indices studies were performed during the 2nd-3d months of the second lactation. It was found that cows of the LL / AB genotype complex compared with their peers of LV/BB and LL/BB genotypes were higher at the withers and sacrum by 3.1 and 2.9 cm, respectively (2.1 and 1.9%; at P &gt; 0, 99). It was determined that the skin in the middle of the last rib of the LL / AB genotype cows compared to peers of LV/BB genotype was thinner by 0.5 mm (9.6%) at P &gt; 0.95. Other measurements of the exterior in the investigated groups of animals differed little. Peers of LL/BB genotype took an intermediate position in these traits. The strength of the complex genotype influence on the features of the exterior was in the range from 2.7 to 12.6%. Holstein cows of the LL/AB genotype had a significant difference in the mass index by 3.3% at P &gt; 0.95, as well as a slightly larger body volume by 28 134.9 cm3 (3.4%), a lower body density index by 0.037 g/cm3 (4.7%) compared with peers of the LV/BB genotype. It is proposed to select animals with the following LL/AB and LL/BB alleles in the complex genotype in order to obtain cows with a better exterior features.

Physical Fitness of Basketball and Volleyball Players of Kolkata, India

Background and Aim: Data of fitness profile parameters in Indian basketball and volleyball players are scanty. Present study aimed to evaluate the fitness profile parameters of the volleyball and basketball players and compare the data between the groups and with their overseas and sedentary counterparts. Methods: Volleyball (n=40) and basketball (n=40) players belonging to the age group of 18-30 years were recruited from Kolkata, India in addition to their sedentary counterparts (n=30) who were recruited from the same locality where the players reside. Standard procedures were adopted to evaluate the fitness profile parameters. Statistical analyses comprised of ANOVA followed by Bonferroni’s post-hoc analysis with the level of significance set at p<0.05. Results: Basketball players had significantly higher anaerobic power and BMI, % body fat and total body fat than the volleyball players, whereas, agility, body density and % LBM were significantly higher in volleyball players. Conclusion: Inter-group difference among the experimental group individuals may be attributed to the variation in the physical and physiological demands pertaining to their specific sport as well as difference in their training modules. Greater fitness in the studied players in comparison to sedentary control individuals was attributed due to their regular involvement in training.

Bose-Einstein condensation of correlated atoms in a trap

The Bose-Einstein condensation of correlated atoms in a trap is studied by examining the effect of inter-particle correlations to one-body properties of atomic systems at zero temperature using a simplified formula for the correlated two body density distribution. Analytical expressions for the density distribution and rms radius of the atomic systems are derived using four different expressions of Jastrow type correlation function. In one case, in addition, the one-body density matrix, momentum distribution and kinetic energy are calculated analytically, while the natural orbitals and natural occupation numbers are also predicted in this case. Simple approximate expressions for the mean square radius and kinetic energy are also given.

Two body density matrix of model nuclear matter

A lowest-cluster-order variational calculation of the half-diagonal two-body density matrix ρ2(r1,r2,r’1) and the corresponding generalized momentum distribution n(p.Q) is performed for three representative models of nuclear matter containing central correlations. Dynamical correlations produce significant deviations from the results for a noninteracting Fermi gas. Calculations axe in progress that include higherorder cluster corrections as well as state-dependent correlations

A harmony‐based approach to generating sequential color schemes for maps

AbstractGenerating high‐quality sequential color schemes for maps is challenging for most mapmakers. This article presents a harmony‐based approach for automatically generating sequential color schemes for maps. The proposed approach consists of two steps: (a) color harmony quantification for sequential color schemes on maps and (b) color scheme generation using quantified color harmony factors. The approach was tested using three experimental maps, including the Chinese water body density index map, Chinese vegetation cover index map, and Chinese population density map. Effectiveness was evaluated by comparing color schemes generated by the proposed approach with those created by the probability‐based method and ColorBrewer. Twenty‐six participants were invited to rate each map color scheme using a 5‐point scale. A t test was also used to examine the significance of the difference. The results show that the mean points of color schemes using the proposed approach are higher than those using the probability‐based method, and the corresponding P‐values are far lower than .05, which suggests that the proposed approach is better than the probability‐based method and can improve the sequential color scheme quality in automatic ways. The mean points of color schemes created using the proposed approach are also slightly higher than or similar to those of ColorBrewer, which are well‐known map color schemes manually designed by an experienced cartographer. This result further suggests that the proposed approach can meet the requirement of automatic generation for high‐quality sequential color schemes on maps.

Objectives of increase of capacity and lifetime of municipal solid waste dump according to density index study

The problem of the optimal waste management of industrial and household waste is extremely important due to large amount of accumulated and annually produced waste. One of the crucial aims to improve ecological quality and environmental safety and compliance is to improve efficiency of waste management. The vast majority of solid domestic waste landfills are used up, but design, construction and place new territories into operation for receiving and waste disposal will take 3-5 years. In this work, issues of definition of the residual capacity of landfill are considered, aiming to expand the capacity and usage period, based on the solid landfill body density index research. Study object is solid household waste landfills in Rostov region, study subject is anthropogenic filling layers of the landfill. In order to support business objectives, there was conducted engineering and geological research, wells were drilled, laboratory studies were undertaken and soil tests were analyzed. Experimental results show the possibility to continue waste disposal works in the current landfill by means of increase of waste density index and free geometric scope.

Identification of Endophytic and Rhizosphere Bacteria in Maize (Zea mays L.) in Limapuluh Kota Region, West Sumatra, Indonesia

The variety of microorganisms that are very abundant began to be used for the benefit of sustainable agriculture. A group of non-pathogenic bacteria has been reported to control disease-causing pathogens and improve plant growth. The purpose of this study is (a) to identify and characterize endophytic bacteria and corn rhizosphere (b) to study endophytic bacteria and rhizosphere which have the potential to spur plant growth. The experiment was carried out at the Payakumbuh State of Agricultural Polytechnic Laboratory, Limapuluh Kota Region, West Sumatra, and LIPI Bogor. The sampling method was carried out by random sampling at four locations. Endophytic bacteria taken from the roots of maize and rhizosphere bacteria originated from the soil around the roots. Bacterial isolation was carried out by the pour and the streak plate method. Identification of bacterial characteristics based on the form of colonies, edges, surfaces, rough surface roughness, surface color, pigment color, bacterial body density, and halo zone colonies. Six species of bacteria have been identified using molecular analysis based on 16S rRNA gene fragments. Bacteria are dominated by the Bacillus genera compared to the Pseudomonas genera. The ability of phosphate dissolving bacteria indicates that endophytic bacteria and the rhizosphere act as growth stimulants.

Just how big is intraspecific trait variation in basidiomycete wood fungal fruit bodies?

Abstract As the use of functional trait approaches is growing in fungal ecology, there is a corresponding need to understand trait variation. Much of trait theory and statistical techniques are built on the assumption that interspecific variation is larger than intraspecific variation. This allows the use of mean trait values for species, which the vast majority of trait studies adopt. We examined the size of intra- vs. inter-specific variation in two wood fungal fruit body traits: size and density. Both coefficients of variation (CV) and Trait Probability Density analyses were used to quantify trait variation. We found that intraspecific variation in fruit body density was more than twice as variable as interspecific variation, and fruit body size was hugely variable (CVs averaged 190%), although interspecific variation was larger. Further, there was a very high degree of overlap in the trait space of species, indicating that there may be little niche partitioning at the species level. These findings show that intraspecific variation is highly important and should be accounted for when using trait approaches to understand fungal ecology. More data on variation of other fungal traits is also desperately needed to ascertain whether the high level of variation found here is typical for fungi. While the need to measure individuals does reduce the ability to generalise at the species level, it does not negate the usefulness of fungal trait measurements. There are two reasons for this: first, the ecology of most fungal species remains poorly known and trait measurements address this gap; and secondly, if trait overlap between species more generally is as much as we found here, then individual measurements may be more helpful than species identity for untangling fungal community dynamics.