Poly Vinyl Alcohol Blend Research Articles

Thermal and mechanical properties of polyamide 6/poly(vinyl alcohol) blends with and without peroxides

Polyamide 6 (PA6)/polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) blends of different compositions (90/10, 80/20, 70/30, 60/40) were prepared using Haake rheomixer. The selected blend compositions (80/20 and 60/40) were modified with peroxides (dicumyl peroxide—DCP and tertiary butyl cumyl peroxide—TBCP). The thermal and mechanical properties of the blends were studied. The thermal stability of blends is found to be intermediate to that of PA6 and PVOH. There is no significant change in thermal stability with the addition of peroxides. The FTIR studies proved good interaction between the components in blend systems. The DSC measurements showed reduction in crystallinity of PA6 with the addition of PVOH. The crystallinity further reduced with the addition of peroxides to the blends, due to the formation of crosslink network. The MFI values decreased with the addition of PVOH and peroxides. The PA6/PVOH blends showed poor mechanical properties, whereas the properties were improved with the addition of peroxides to PA6/PVOH blends.

Synthesis and Characterization of Chitosan- Polyvinyl alcohol Blend Modified by Genipin and Nanohydroxyapatite for Bone Tissue Engineering

Use nanohydroxyapatite into the polymeric matrix as bioactive material for bone tissue engineering has enormous therapeutic potential because beneficial properties biocompatibility, biodegradability, and consider a major inorganic constituent of the bone matrix. The blended films of Chitosan and Polyvinyl alcohol with Genipin as cross-link agent were studied with and without addition Nanohydroxyapatite. Samples were prepared by solvent casting. The resulting films blended composite were characterized by Fourier transfer infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, degradation behavior, swelling degree and tensile strength. Degree of swelling, and weight loss of the films blended composite was decreased with an increase of genipin and nanohydroxyapatie concentrations while tensile strength was increased with an increase of genipin and nanohydroxyapaite concentrations. The results showed that the chitosan composite could be used as effective biomaterials for bone regeneration engineering with different degradation rates.

A study on the effect of starch–polyvinyl alcohol blends by addition of citric acid and boric acid for enhancement in performance properties of polyvinyl acetate-based wood adhesive

Wood adhesives with enhanced properties were prepared by incorporating either citric or boric acid. The citric acid and boric acid were added in the presence of water being the polymers and acids readily soluble in water. The reaction was carried out at a relatively lower temperature in order to prevent water evaporation and damage to the starch structure. Two series of adhesives were prepared with varying starch and polyvinyl acetate content. The adhesives were characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and dynamic mechanical analysis. The effects of citric and boric acid on performance properties like wet tack, tensile shear strength, rheology and viscosity stability were studied. The results showed that by addition of acids there is an increase in mechanical strength, viscosity and wet tack in the case of boric acid. Similarly, better viscosity stability was observed due to addition of citric acid. From the tests conducted, it can be concluded that the composition for optimum level performance and stability is at 0.3 wt% of citric acid and 0.1 wt% of boric acid of the total composition of adhesive.

Permeation and sorption properties of CO2-selective blend membranes based on polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium dicyanamide ([EMIM][DCA]) ionic liquid for effective CO2/H2 separation

This paper reports on the preparation and testing of blend membranes based on polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium dicyanamide ([EMIM][DCA]) ionic liquid (IL) for effective CO2/H2 gas separation. Stable membranes with 9, 14, 24, 42 and 53 wt.% of IL were prepared via the solution casting procedure. Structural analysis (XRD, Raman, TGA and DSC) revealed that the increase of the incorporated IL content in PVA affected e.g. crystalline orientation in the diffraction plane 1 0 1 in favour of plane 2 0 0. The presence of the IL shifted the Tg (65 °C) and Tm (165 °C) of neat PVA to lower temperatures, towards the values of pure IL. The gas transport in neat PVA and PVA-IL blends with low IL content was found to be diffusivity-controlled, and the IL addition leads to an increase of both gas permeability and H2/CO2 selectivity. Instead, membranes with an IL content above 20 wt.% were more permeable for CO2 due to the prevailing solubility-controlled mechanism. Compared to neat PVA, which has barrier properties, the sample PVA-IL with 53 wt.% of IL exhibited an exceptional increase in gas permeability for both gases, H2circa 150 times to 8.65 Barrer and CO2 permeability circa 2400 times to 66.9 Barrer, with the corresponding ideal CO2/H2 selectivity of 7.73 that slightly exceeds the reverse CO2/H2 Robeson 2008 upper bound.

PVA/PVP blend polymer matrix for hosting carriers in facilitated transport membranes: Synergistic enhancement of CO2 separation performance

CO2 separation performance in facilitated transport membranes has been reported depended not only on the CO2 carrier properties but also to a great extent on the polymeric matrix regarding the capacity of retaining water and carriers as well as the processability for coating defect-free ultra-thin films. In this study, the blends of hydrophilic polymers polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) were studied to find an optimal polymer matrix to host carriers in facilitated transport membranes for enhanced CO2 separation. It is found out that the optimized blend is 50/50 PVA/PVP by weight, which shows a significant increase in the water uptake (from 63 to 84%) at equilibrium state compared to the neat PVA. Polyethyleneimine (PEI) was employed to provide sample carriers to evaluate the synergistic effect of PVA and PVP on the CO2 separation performance. A thin film composite (TFC) membrane of the optimized blend (50/50 PVA/PVP with 50 wt% PEI) was fabricated on polysulfone (PSf) porous support. The fabrication of the TFC membranes is simple and low cost, and CO2 permeance of the optimized blend membrane is nearly doubled with the CO2/N2 selectivity remained unchanged, showing great potential for industrial applications of the resulted membranes.

Fabrication and in-vitro Investigation of Polycaprolactone - (Polyvinyl Alcohol/Collagen) Hybrid Nanofiber as Anti-Inflammatory Guided Tissue Regeneration Membrane.

Periodontal disease is the most common oral condition that affects the tissue surrounding the teeth. The oral cavity is colonized by an impressive array of micro-organisms, many of which can colonize the implants such as Guided Tissue Regeneration (GTR) often utilized in recovering procedures that result in inflammation interfering with the bone regeneration. In the current study, a nano-hybrid GTR membrane is developed as a heliacal structure scaffold with localized drug delivery function (Ibuprofen) as an anti-inflammatory agent. Polycaprolactone (PCL) and a blend of Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/collagen (Col) (50/50) were electrospun by electrospinning. Ibuprofen (Ibu) was loaded once in the PCL context and once in the hydrophilic portion (PVA/Col). The in vitro release behavior was investigated in each case. Chemical and physical properties were studied for each item. Morphology investigation indicated a heliacal structure with the total average diameter of 1266 nm consististing of porous pores with the average diameter of 256nm. The membranes indicated proper mechanical properties and appropriate biodegradation rate as a potential GTR membrane. The controlled and sustained release of Ibu was obtained from both PCL and PVA/COL loaded membranes. Kinetic model study indicated the following zero-order and Higuchi models for the optimum case of PCL loaded and PVA/Col Ibu loaded scaffolds respectively.

Preparation, structural analysis, morphological investigation and electrical properties of gold nanoparticles filled polyvinyl alcohol/carboxymethyl cellulose blend

Polymer nanocomposite samples have been prepared through the solution casting method utilizing a polymer blend of polyvinyl alcohol and carboxymethyl cellulose (70/30wt.%) as organic host matrix and different concentrations of biosynthesized gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) by the leaf extract of green mint (Mentha Spicata L.) as inorganic nanofiller. The structural, optical and morphological properties of these samples have been through FT-IR, XRD, UV/Vis. and SEM techniques. The FT-IR spectra confirm the blend components are miscible by the formation of Hydrogen bond interaction and show the polymer-nanoparticle interactions. The XRD analyses depict the semicrystalline structure of these samples and the crystallinity degree decrease with increase of Au NPs content within the PVA/CMC structure. The TEM micrograph of biosynthesized Au NPs indicates that shapes of these NPs are spherical NPs and triangular/hexagonal nanoplates with average size range 5–29nm. The alternating electrical conductivity, electrical impedance, complex dielectric permittivity and electric modulus spectra of prepared samples have been investigated at 25°C in the frequency range (0.1Hz–20MHz). Thus, the variations in values of conductivity, dielectric permittivity and relaxation times indicate the feasibility of these materials as flexible nanodielectric of frequency tunable permittivity for radio/audio frequency operating microelectronic/conventional devices.

A feasible biocompatible hydrogel film embedding Periplaneta americana extract for acute wound healing.

The wound healing effects of pharmaceutic preparations of Periplaneta americana, Kangfuxin liquid, have been widely utilized in clinics. However, its wound repair efficacy is limited due to short retention capability on cutaneous wound location. Herein, Periplaneta americana extract (PAE), which showed pro-fibrogenic and pro-angiogeneic effects, was embedded into hydrogel film (PAE/Film) by solution cast method by blending polyvinyl alcohol, hydroxypropyl chitosan and carbomer at the weight ratio of 78/6/3, with glycerol as plasticizer. PAE/Film exhibited smooth, flexible, and excellent swelling ability (WVTR of 2464 ± 31.5 g/m2/day), characterized by scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and differential scanning calorimetry, meting the condition of ideal wound dressing. The superior wound healing capacity of PAE/Film was demonstrated that it significantly accelerated wound healing process in vivo in both full-thickness skin defect and scald wounded models. Compared to saline, blank vehicle (drug-free) and free PAE group, PAE/Film could accelerate wound healed, promote re-epithelialization and collagen deposition by means of TGF-β/Smad signal pathway activation. Taken together, this novel hydrogel film-loading PAE would be a useful pharmaceutic candidate for acute cutaneous wound health care.

Hierarchical layered double hydroxide coated carbon nanotube modified quaternized chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol for alkaline direct methanol fuel cells

Cost-effective and eco-friendly biopolymer chitosan has been attracted the rising interest as a promising anion exchange membrane material because it can be easily quaternized without involving the carcinogenic chloromethylation step that is inevitable for polyaromatics. Ionic conductivity and mechanical strength are the two main concerns for the high-performance application of quaternized chitosan. Herein, we report hydroxide ion conductor (layered double hydroxide, LDH) coated carbon nanotubes (LDH@CNTs) as a multifunctional nanofiller to modify quaternized chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol blend matrix. The hierarchical nanostructure of LDH@CNTs consisting of two-dimensional LDH nanosheets anchored on one-dimensional carbon nanotubes plays a good reinforcing role. Incorporating 1 wt% of LDH@CNTs shows a 1.57-fold increase in tensile strength. Moreover, owing to the unique one-dimensional structure of carbon nanotubes as well as the excellent hydroxide-conducting ability of LDH coating, the channel-like ion transport pathways can be constructed and thus enhance the ionic conductivity of the composites. The composite membrane with 1 wt% LDH@CNTs loading exhibits conductivity of 47 mS cm−1 (80 °C) and maximum power density of 107.2 mW cm−2 (2 M methanol + 5 M KOH, 80 °C) which are respectively 61% and 27% higher than those of the pure membrane.

Plasticizing and anti-plasticizing effects of polyvinyl alcohol in blend with thermoplastic starch

Thermoplastic starch (TPS) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) blends were prepared by extrusion method in the presence of water/glycerol and citric acid, and their phase behavior was investigated. Results of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffractometry (XRD) tests demonstrated the complete plasticization of starch during the melt mixing. PVA crystal phase was not formed in blends with less than 50 wt% PVA. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) analysis revealed high compatibility between two phases, starch and PVA. Addition of PVA to TPS resulted in the reduction of the glass transition temperature and dynamic moduli and improvement of sample flexibility. However, at 10 wt% PVA, an anti-plasticization effect caused to increase the Tg and storage modulus of the blend.

An insight into the effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles on the structural, thermal, mechanical properties and antimicrobial activity of Cs/PVA composite

Zinc oxide nanoparticles were prepared by a sol-gel method and characterized by XRD, SEM, TEM and EDX. A series of chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol (Cs/PVA) blend films doped with various concentrations of Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) were prepared by solution casting method. These samples were characterized by various analytical techniques. XRD patterns of the prepared samples showed increasing in amorphousity of the polymer blend with increasing the content of ZnO NPs in Cs/PVA blend. The FT-IR analysis confirmed the complexation between Cs/PVA blend and ZnO NPs. From the UV–vis results, the optical energy gap was calculated. The TGA analysis displayed that the thermal stability of all the samples improved after the addition of the ZnO NPs. By the tensile universal testing machine, the mechanical properties of the prepared films were determined. The antimicrobial analysis showed that all nanocomposite films exhibited enhanced antimicrobial efficacy as compared to pure Cs/PVA film and it is linearly related to the amount of ZnO nanoparticles in the matrix. The sample containing 10 and 15 wt.% ZnO NPs exhibited the highest thermal stability, mechanical strength, and antibacterial activity. This nanocomposite with excellent thermal stability, tensile and antibacterial properties can be potentially utilized for antimicrobial packaging purposes and can be widely used in medical applications.

Micro-cellulose Sheet and Polyvinyl Alcohol Blended Film for Active Packaging

Extraction of chemically modified microcrystalline cellulose sheet (MCS) from rice husk is reported using a greener method. MCS is then blended with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) by solution method under optimum conditions. The structural, morphological and physical properties were studied by spectroscopic, scanning electron microscope, gas chromatograph and standard ASTM methods. The result reveals the formation of carbonated microcrystalline cellulose blended polyvinyl alcohol (MCS-b-PVA) with improved mechanical, barrier and carbon di oxide releasing properties. Further, CO2 releasing ability has made the film suitable for active packaging film for storage of meat products. The chemical mechanistic model for CO2 release has been also proposed under the influence of hydronium ion and relative humidity in context of a close packet.

One-step synthesis of eco-friendly boiled rice starch blended polyvinyl alcohol bionanocomposite films decorated with in situ generated silver nanoparticles for food packaging purpose

The study reports a one-step preparation of polyvinyl alcohol/boiled rice starch blend film fabricated with in situ generated silver nanoparticles (PVA/BRS/sAgNPs) formed in the presence of sunlight irradiation. The bionanocomposite appeared to have dark brown color with a characteristic surface plasmon resonance peak at 439 nm. Further characterization has confirmed the presence of physical interactions among the components PVA, BRS and sAgNPs. Compared to the control PVA, the nanocomposites showed improved mechanical and optical properties with decreased water sensitivity. Presence of boiled rice starch and sAgNPs were also found to influence the light transmittance of composite film. Moreover, PVA/BRS/sAgNPs film was found to have superior barrier property against environmental microorganisms. Biodegradation of the composite films was studied by indoor soil burial test and was assessed by visual appearance, weight loss and FTIR analysis. Interestingly, both the PVA/BRS and PVA/BRS/sAgNPs films proved to be biodegradable and hence have promising application as cost effective food packaging material with the latter having marked antimicrobial property.

Cellulose nanocrystal assisted dual-modification of starch and subsequent polyvinyl alcohol blends

A cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) based dual-modification was explored as a means to achieve better film properties. Starch was mixed with 0.5 wt% CNC followed by oxidation with NaClO, then esterified with CNC and vinyl acetate. The dual-modified starch showed an increased degree of substitution, disrupted morphology, and decreased crystallinity. A remarkable catalytic effect of CNC was found with 0.3 wt% CNC in esterification, where the degree of substitution was 2.7 times higher than that of dual-modified starch without CNC. The best modifying condition was selected as 0.3 wt% CNC and 7.0 wt% vinyl acetate. The film generated from dual-modified starch, polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH), and glycerol generated a smooth surface and compact structure. Moreover, the films based on dual-modified starch had improved transparency, thermal stability, and tensile strength compared to that of native starch or oxidized starch. The highest tensile strength of film was obtained at 25.7 MPa with 30 wt% PVOH. The film showed the highest water resistance with a contact angle of 113°.

Skin-Inspired Gels with Toughness, Antifreezing, Conductivity, and Remoldability.

In recent years, nature-inspired conductive hydrogels have become ideal materials for the design of bioactuators, healthcare monitoring sensors, and flexible wearable devices. However, conductive hydrogels are often hindered by problems such as the poor mechanical property, nonreusability, and narrow operating temperature range. Here, a novel skin-inspired gel is prepared via one step of blending polyvinyl alcohol, gelatin, and glycerin. Due to their dermis-mimicking structure, the obtained gels possess high mechanical properties (fracture stress of 1044 kPa, fracture strain of 715%, Young's modulus of 157 kPa, and toughness of 3605 kJ m-3). Especially, the gels exhibit outstanding strain-sensitive electric behavior as biosensors to monitor routine movement signals of the human body. Moreover, the gels with low temperature tolerance can maintain good conductivity and flexibility at -20 °C. Interestingly, the gels are capable of being recovered and reused by heating injection, cooling molding, and freezing-thawing cycles. Thus, as bionic materials, the gels have fascinating potential applications in various fields, such as human-machine interfaces, biosensors, and wearable devices.

Suppression of Soil Dust Emissions from Large-Scale Construction Sites Using Starch and Polyvinyl Alcohol

Soil dust emitted from large-scale construction sites in urban areas impacts air quality and creates a severe health threat to residents. Water spraying is commonly practiced to lower dust emission in construction sites, but its long-term effectiveness is questionable. In this study the utility of starch, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and a blend of starch and PVA in various proportions was investigated for the suppression of soil dust emissions at construction sites in Seoul. The efficiency of each dust suppressant was tested with test soil samples in a laboratory-scale wind tunnel box under different concentrations of suppressants and soil textures. Starch and PVA showed superior ability to suppress soil dust emissions compared to moistening bare soil, resulting in PM10 lower than the daily limit values of 30 μg/m3. PVA showed higher soil dust suppression capability for all conditions over starch. Test soils sprayed with dust suppressants significantly improved aggregate stability compared to untreated soils.

A facile approach to fabricate composite anion exchange membranes with enhanced ionic conductivity and dimensional stability for electrodialysis

It is significant to develop anion exchange membranes (AEMs) with efficient ionic transport and desirable stabilities (mechanical and dimensional) for various applications, including electrodialysis (ED). In this paper, three types of composite AEMs based on quaternized polysulfone (QPSU) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) blends: QPSU/PVA composite AEM (M0), potassium thioacetate (PT) modified QPSU blending with PVA (M1) and QPSU blending with 4-formylbenzoic acid (FBA) modified PVA (M2-X, X = mass ratio of the FBA with the values of 0.05 and 0.20), have been investigated. Our investigation demonstrates that the swelling ratios of M1 and M2-0.05 were significantly reduced to 10.9% and 4.7% at 20 °C, much lower than M0 (16.9%). This can be due to the formed hydrogen-bonding network viaOH from PVA and >CO from PT structure on PSU within M1 or the ionic crosslinking interactions between COO– from FBA and >N+– on QPSU within M2. Though the free volume inside AEM matrix is reduced, the chloride ion conductivities of M1 and M2-0.05 reach 20.5 mS cm−1 and 23.5 mS cm−1 at 20 °C. In ED application, the optimized M2-0.05 has the highest NaCl removal ratio of 74.6% within 120 min (vs. 61.06% of the commercial AEM-Type II), and exhibits better desalination performance with high current efficiency (98.0% vs.92.8%) and lower energy consumption (2.2 kWh kg−1 NaCl vs. 2.4 kWh kg−1). The simple preparation process and good ED performance of M2-0.05 are indicative of its potential ED application.

An improved scheme for measuring 13C spin-lattice relaxation time: Targeting systems with marked difference in phase mobility or proton density

Abstract A novel scheme, named DP-Torchia was developed to measure the spin-lattice relaxation time (T1) of low abundant nuclei, such as 13C. Apart from the common samples that are suitable for the traditional 13C T1 methods, DP-Torchia is also designed for the mixtures or materials containing domains with markedly different local mobility or sharply distinct proton distribution. Through the tests of L-alanine/adamantane (Ala/Ada) mixture as well as the polymer blend of polyvinyl alcohol and polytetrafluoroethylene (PVA/PTFE), the performances of three methods are compared, including inverse-recovery (IR), Torchia and DP-Torchia. It is demonstrated that the results measured using DP-Torchia are in accordance with those of Torchia and IR methods, with the relative deviation of less than 3% for Ala/Ada mixture, while 1.5% for PVA/PTFE blend. Moreover, DP-Torchia consumes less experimental time than that of traditional methods, saving one-third of the traditional measuring time for Ala/Ada mixture, while consuming 6 h less measuring time than that of the traditional methods for PVA/PTFE blend. Compared with the common used methods, inverse-recovery and Torchia, DP-Torchia consumes less experimental time with more tolerance to the measured samples. Those favorable performances imply that DP-Torchia method has potential to become a routine tool for measuring 13C T1 values, especially for the materials with marked difference in phase mobility or proton density for industrial and scientific research.

Investigation of Photodegradation Preventing of Polyvinyl Alcohol/Nanoclay Composites

The effects of UV irradiation on chemical, thermal, mechanical, and morphological properties of polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH)/2 wt.% of nanoclay(NC) filler were investigated. PVOH composite films were prepared from PVOH blend with fixed content (2%) of NC via the solution casting method. Pure PVOH and PVOH composites were exposed to 340 nm fluorescent UV lamps and assessed for 50 h, 100 h, and 200 h UV exposue. The experimental results such as Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) confirmed that 2% wt. NC filler is efficient and can resist chemical degradation that is caused by ultraviolet irradiation (UV). The carbonyl and hydroxyl indices were increased with increasing the UV exposure irradiation times of both PVOH and PVOH composite. However, the PVOH nanocomposites exhibited more resistant to increasing the indices after exposure to UV irradiation with a longer exposure time. The thermal results (TGA) indicated that PVOH nanocomposite is exhibited more resistance to thermal degradation after UV irradiation exposure compared to that of pure PVOH sample. From DMA results, the storage of modulus was reduced after exposure to UV irradiation of PVOH and PVOH nanocomposites. The results of Tg of PVOH nanocomposites increased after the incorporation of 2% wt. NC into PVOH after exposure to UV irradiation. PVOH nanocomposite exhibited more resistance to reduce the tensile strength after exposure to 200 h UV irradiation. XRD tests showed that PVOH/2 wt.% NC nanocomposites have more resistant to increase intensity after exposure to 200 h UV irradiation compared to that of PVOH sample. The morphology micrographs showed that no obvious cracks on the PVOH nanocomposite after UV irradiation exposure by comparing to that of pure PVOH.

Interactive effects of carbon nanotube and montmorrilonite reinforcement polyvinyl alcohol composite system

This work was conducted to investigate the interactive effect of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and montmorillonite (MMT) on the mechanical–physical properties of the polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) nanocomposites. The increasing of CNTs amounts from 0.5 phr to 1 phr has gradually increased tensile strength and Young's modulus of all PVOH/MMT blends due to good interaction effect between MMT and CNTs with PVOH matrix especially for 2 phr MMT added PVOH blends. Besides, the addition of low CNTs amounts (≤1 phr) in PVOH matrix has significantly weakened the hydrogen bonding polymer matrix of all PVOH/MMT blends as evaluated in FTIR analysis. This is attributed to the good of dispersion of low amounts of CNTs could disturb the hydrogen bonding between PVOH molecules and thus induced the strength of OH stretching in PVOH matrix. However, higher amounts of CNTs (≥1.5 phr) have significantly increased hydrogen bonding in PVOH matrix due to the agglomeration of higher amounts of CNTs particles in PVOH matrix as observed in Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy analysis. From X‐ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy observation, the MMT particles were found to effectively exfoliate in PVOH matrix of 2 phr MMT (low amounts) added PVOH/MMT/MCNTs composites, indicates that low MMT amounts could improve the interaction effect between PVOH matrix and CNTs particles. In conclusion, the incorporation of lower amounts of CNTs has effectively improved on the mechanical and physical properties of all PVOH and PVOH/MMT blends. J. VINYL ADDIT. TECHNOL., 26:77–89, 2020. © 2019 Society of Plastics Engineers