Blended Binder Research Articles

Feasibility study on the sustainable utilization of uncalcined clay soils as Low-Cost binders

The need to reduce the negative environmental impact and cost of construction binders have resulted in an imminent need to utilize locally available materials as alternatives. An experimental study was carried out to explore the use of locally sourced raw clay as a binder for construction applications. This approach was implemented to develop a sustainable alternative to Portland cement which is known to be detrimental to the environment and consume a large amount of raw materials. Thus, in this study, clay binders were produced by using various alkali activators and incorporating slag to form a blended alkali activation system. The mechanical and physical characteristics of the developed clay binders were measured at 28 days and the effects of different activators on the physical and mechanical properties of clay binders were assessed. The results of the extensive experimental program indicate that the alkali activation of clay soil and the clay-slag system are feasible options to produce an effective, hardened, and low-cost clay binder. The 28-day compressive strength as high as 30 MPa was achieved with the use of sodium carbonate to activate a clay-slag blend. The sodium silicate and calcium hydroxide solutions showed a positive impact on the strength and durability characteristics of a binder made only with clay soil. However, a clay-slag blended binder activated with sodium silicate, sodium carbonate, and calcium hydroxide solutions showed enhanced strength and durability properties.

Development of a Model to Estimate Percentage of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) Binder Contribution Based on Design and Performance of Super High RAP Mixes

Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is one of the most recycled materials. The allowed RAP percentage in asphalt mixes is typically limited because of concerns over variability, binder stiffness, cracking performance, and generally the unknown associated with RAP. With abundant RAP stockpiles, the use of higher percentage RAP in asphalt mix may be warranted if performance can meet or exceed low RAP (LR) mixes (20% RAP or lower). In this study, high RAP (HR) mixes (40% RAP) and super high RAP (SHR) mixes (greater than 40% RAP) were designed, and their performance was compared with LR mixes. Mixes that cover two climates, Eastern and Western Washington, were included in this study. A lower performance grade (PG) virgin binder and a bio-based rejuvenator were used in HR and SHR mixes to allow the blended binder to meet the target PG required by the Washington Department of Transportation (WSDOT). Mix volumetrics and binder PGs of these mixes were designed close to each other, indicating the feasibility to produce RAP mixes up to 100% RAP. Overall, the addition of RAP improves the rutting performance but reduces the cracking performance of SHR mixes. Two measures were evaluated to mitigate SHR mixes’ cracking potential, including adding extra 0.5% virgin binder or 50% rejuvenator above the original dose, which improved the cracking performance of SHR mixes but reduced the rutting resistance. Based on these results, a recycled binder contribution model was developed to estimate the percentage of RAP binder contribution based on rutting and cracking performance testing.

The engineering properties and pozzolanic reaction kinetics of quaternary blended binder high strength mortars optimized by the Taguchi method

The Taguchi method has been applied for the experimental design of the mixture proportions of quaternary blended cement mortars on the basis of four factors. The design of experiment derived mixture proportions have been examined on four levels, comprising supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) viz: ultra-fine treated palm oil fuel ash (u-TPOFA; at 4 levels of 30, 35, 40, and 45%), ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS; at 4 levels of 12.5, 15, 17.5, and 20%), metakaolin (MK; at 4 levels of 7.5, 10, 12.5, and 15%) as partial replacement of ordinary Portland cement (OPC), and water to binder ratio (W/B; at 4 levels of 25, 26, 27, and 28%), in order to achieve an optimum mixture. The response factors employed were compressive strength (CS), porosity (P%), and water absorption (Abs%) at the ages of 3, 7, 14, and 28 days. By utilizing the L16 array as proposed by the Taguchi method, the specimens prepared were analyzed using 16 experiments. The results obtained showed that the response values of the optimized mixture using the Taguchi method were much better than the plain cement mortar mix and those proposed in the initial 16 series. The workability of the optimum mix increased by about 6% over the plain cement mortar mix. The relative CS results of the optimum mix was 116.92% at 28 days of curing. Likewise, the relative P% and Abs% results of the optimum mix exhibited notable reductions at 28 days of about 40.0% and 45%, respectively. Further analyses were carried out using thermogravimetric (TG) and x-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses to quantify the contribution of the SCMs and their chemical reaction which was reflected by the remaining amount of the unreacted portlandite in the mix. According to the results, the optimum quaternary blended binders mortar mix which utilized only 37.5% of cement by volume (i.e., a reduction from 882.22 to 330.83 kg/m3) portrayed improved physical properties, chemical reaction, enhanced workability, better CS, as well as lower P% and Abs% compared to the plain cement mortar.

Characterization of nanoscale cracking at the interface between virgin and aged asphalt binders based on molecular dynamics simulations

Low-temperature cracking is a major concern to improve the utilization of recycled asphalt mixture (RAM). A mechanism by which the crack propagates can provide a basis for advanced technological mitigation. Micro-crack formations in the interfacial proximity of the virgin and aged binders have been identified from electron microscopy tests. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) experiment showed the trilayer phases at the virgin-aged binder interface. In this study, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were conducted to understand the nanoscopic crack propagation characteristics at the virgin-aged binder interface in the asphalt mixture with RAM. It was found that the blended binder of virgin and aged binders, and its interfaces with virgin and aged binders appeared to be the crack propagation zones. The relatively more significant matrix contraction of virgin binder and stiffer aged binder at a low temperature can cause more considerable tensile stress at the blended binder and its interfaces. Consequently, interfacial crack propagation became more profound and decreased the low-temperature cracking resistance.

Manipulation of Electrode Composition for Effective Water Management in Fuel Cells Fed with an Electrically Rechargeable Liquid Fuel.

The liquid fuel cell, with its high energy density and ease of fuel handling, has attracted great attention worldwide. However, its real application is still being greatly hindered by its limited power density. Hence, the recently proposed and demonstrated fuel cell, using an electrically rechargeable liquid fuel (e-fuel), is believed to be a candidate with great potential due to its significant performance advancement. Unlike the conventional alcoholic liquid fuels, the e-fuel possesses excellent reactivity, even on carbon-based materials, which therefore allows the e-fuel cell to achieve superior performance without any noble metal catalysts. However, it is found that, during the cell operation, the water generated at the cathode following the oxygen reduction reaction could lead to a water flooding problem and further limit the cell performance. To address this issue, in this work, by manipulating the cathode composition, a blended binder cathode using both Nafion and polytetrafluoroethylene as binding agents is fabricated and demonstrated its superiority in the fuel cell to achieve an enhanced water management and cell performance. Furthermore, using the developed cathode, a fuel cell stack is designed and fabricated to power a 3D-printed toy car, presenting this system as a promising device feasible for future study and real applications.

Global warming potential of recycled aggregate concrete with supplementary cementitious materials

Significant materials research has focused on the reduction of concrete demolition waste via reuse in recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) and the reduction in cement emissions through the use of blended binders incorporating supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). This work is largely predicated on the assumption that the environmental impact of concrete will be reduced as a result of the inclusion of waste materials. That is, research focusing on the development of RAC mix designs has largely been conducted without parallel life-cycle assessment (LCA) to quantify the true environmental impact. Here, a LCA is conducted to quantify the global warming potential (GWP) of 590 mix designs derived from 42 studies that incorporate both recycled aggregate and a range of SCM types. The assessment considers both a volumetric functional unit and a combined volumetric and strength functional unit, the analysis also considers the absorption of atmospheric carbon via concrete carbonation both during and after service. For each type of SCM the range of predicted GWP is defined, and it is shown that substantial reductions in CO2 equivalent emissions arise from SCM addition. Further, the use of recycled aggregate is shown to be most environmentally beneficial in lower strength concretes in which it is possible to achieve the same mechanical properties as natural aggregate concrete controls.

Effect of the incorporation of PET fiber and ternary blended binder on the flexural and tensile behaviour of ultra-high performance green concrete

Ultra-High performance Fiber Reinforced Green Concrete is an advanced technology in concrete sustainability via the utilization of green alternative materials, with superior mechanical properties. The effects of adding recycled waste plastic bottles in the form Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) fiber on the flexural and tensile behavior of Ultra-High Performance PET Fibre Reinforced Green Concrete (UHPPFRGC) containing different volumes of Ultra-fine palm oil fuel ash (UPOFA) and Silica Fume (SF) have been investigated. Up to fourteen concrete mixtures were designed with varying UPOFA and SF content as partial replacement of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) in volumes of (25%- 50%) UPOFA and (10%-20%) SF. PET fibres were added at a portion of 1% from the total mixture volume. The results showed that the addition of PET fibres modulates the stiff and brittle behaviour of Ultra High-Performance Green Concrete (UHPGC). The optimum values were registered with (U25-SF20-UHPPFRGC) mix containing 25%UPOFA, 20%SF and 1% PET fibres. A considerable increased in ductility index was achieved, with superior compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, flexural toughness and flexural stiffness of 153 MPa, 9.31 MPa, 30.1 MPa, 29.7 kN.mm and 18.225kN/mm, respectively. Thus, the utilization of ternary blended binders (OPC-UPOFA-SF) with recycled PET fibres could promote the production of UHPPFRGC possessing adequate flexural and tensile strength properties.

Effects of hydraulic binder composition on the rheological characteristics of recycled mixtures with foamed bitumen for full depth reclamation

Cold recycled bituminous mixtures incorporating reclaimed asphalt pavement and recycled aggregate were designed with a blended binder consisting of CEM I 32.5R, hydrated lime and cement by-pass dust. The three-component hydraulic binder was blended with quantities of constituents in the range from 20% to 60% (100% sum of constituents). The influence of the blended binder composition on the recycled mixture properties was investigated based on the simplex-centroid mixture design. The properties investigated included the air void content, indirect tensile strength and resistance to water and frost of the mixture. Additionally, rheological characteristics were analyzed, such as the resistance to low-temperature cracking, fatigue resistance, crack propagation potential, dynamic modulus, and phase angle. Optimization using the Harrington desirability function allowed determining the recommended composition for the blended binder, i.e., 40% cement, 20% hydrated lime, and 40% cement by-pass dust. The proposed binder blending methodology enables adapting it to the needs of road building practice in terms of the quality of reclaimed asphalt pavement and recycled aggregate.

A ternary blended binder incorporating alum sludge to efficiently resist alkali-silica reaction of recycled glass aggregates

Recycled glass has been widely used as aggregates in cement-based materials. However, it may lead to a severe alkali-silica reaction (ASR) due to high reactive silica content in glass, causing cracks and failures in concrete structures. Our previous research indicated that utilization of alum-based drinking water treatment sludge (DWTS) as partial cement replacement could mitigate ASR. However, such mitigation only occurred when a high volume of DWTS was used and resulted in significant mechanical property deterioration. This study developed ternary blends containing ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and DWTS content to overcome the strength loss. Up to 30% of the cement were replaced with DWTS and GGBFS at a mass ratio of 1:1. The results showed that the mortar made with the ternary blends had considerable compressive strength (37 MPa) compared with reference (34 MPa) when 30% cement by mass was replaced, and this replacement proportion could effectively control the ASR expansion under 0.1% in samples. The microstructural analysis was conducted using X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and backscattered electron (BSE) coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) techniques. The results indicated that the Al in the DWTS could limit the precipitation of the detrimental ASR gels by promoting the generation of calcium aluminum silicate hydrate (C-A-S-H), binding alkaline and preventing ASR gels from transforming into low-flowable gels.

Laboratory investigation on blending process of reclaimed asphalt mixture

With the extensive application of hot recycling technology in maintenance of asphalt pavement, there is a concern on the blending between reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) binder and virgin binder. Two main stages, viz. the mobilization stage of RAP binder and the diffusion stage of virgin binder, in the blending process between RAP and virgin binder are investigated in this study. In order to quantify the mobilization rate of RAP binder, a blending chart relating RAP binder content to carboxyl index (CI) of blended binder was established by using Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR). The effects of RAP particle size, RAP temperature and mixing sequence were taken into account in laboratory experiment. The diffusion of virgin binder was studied by using the tracing method. Cobaltous (Co) naphthenate solution as a tracer was blended with the virgin binder. Based on the distribution of Co element in RAP binder detected by scanning electron microscope equipped with energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM/EDS), an index was proposed to quantify the diffusion degree of virgin binder. The obtained results showed that the proposed indicators could well reflect the variation of mobilization rate and diffusion degree under different test conditions and can be used to comprehensively evaluate the blending efficiency between RAP binder and virgin binder.

Chemical and Rheological Characterization of Asphalt Binders: A Comparison of Asphalt Binder Aging and Asphalt Mixture Aging

The objective of this study was to compare the chemical and rheological properties of asphalt binders recovered from aged asphalt mixtures with the corresponding aged asphalt binders used in those mixtures. Seven plant-produced asphalt mixtures, with unmodified and polymer modified asphalt binders and varying reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) content, were compacted and aged in a conventional oven at 85°C for zero (unaged), five, or 10 days. Asphalt binders were extracted and recovered from each aging level for chemical and rheological characterization. Seven blends of virgin asphalt binder and RAP binder were constituted to be similar to those used in the seven plant-produced asphalt mixtures. Subsequently, each asphalt binder blend was aged by rolling thin film oven (RTFO) and pressure aging vessel (PAV) for chemical and rheological characterization. Chemical and rheological characterization included Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, high and intermediate temperature performance grade (PG), frequency sweep, and linear amplitude sweep (LAS) tests. Asphalt mixtures aged for five and 10 days resulted in asphalt binders that were less aged than similar ones aged by PAV when measured by LAS fatigue parameter ALAS, frequency sweep Glover Rowe (G-R) parameter, and intermediate temperature PG. However, unaged asphalt mixtures yielded asphalt binders with similar properties to those aged in RTFO as measured by high temperature PG. Correlation analysis between asphalt binder and asphalt mixture aging revealed that the G-R parameter has the highest coefficient of correlation among parameters. Further, new aging indices were introduced to capture the effect of polymer modification on aging susceptibility.

Chemical, mineralogical, and microstructural interactions between lime-pozzolan binders and miscanthus particles in lightweight concretes

The incorporation of bio-aggregates such as miscanthus in mineral binder matrices can produce lightweight insulation materials. Bio-aggregate lightweight concretes show peculiar microstructure compared to standard mineral aggregate concretes. This paper evaluates the chemical and mineralogical interactions between miscanthus particles and blends of mineral binders that include hydrated lime (CL90s), natural hydraulic lime (NHL3.5), formulated lime (FLA3.5) and mineral additions such as ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), fly ash (FA) and Portland cement (Ce). The properties and the influence of ternary binder blends made of 75%CL90s, 15%NHL3.5 and 10% mineral additions (GGBS/FA/Ce) on the morphology of the interfacial zone were investigated. It was observed that carbonation of samples proceeds from the outer shell to the inner core of samples leaving a physically identifiable hardened shell (external 1–2 cm) and a softer inner core. In all samples, the X-ray diffraction results show that there is a reduction in peak intensities and broadening of Ca(OH)2 peaks whereas peaks of CaCO3 sharpen and increase in intensity. The mineralogical changes in the binding matrix depend on the type of mineral addition. Thermogravimetric analysis shows that the addition of 10% Portland cement results in the highest levels of carbonation (1.1–1.4%) and hydration (8.6–17.1%). However, also fly ash incorporation was found to be beneficial in terms of reaction processes, and its use can have positive environmental impacts due to its low embodied carbon. FTIR results show that the chemical composition of miscanthus surface changes in contact with all binders, with effects on the structures of both hemicellulose and lignin.

Compressed unfired blocks made with iron ore tailings and slag

Growing demand for houses in urban India has increased the requirements for construction materials such as clay fired bricks and cement blocks. At the same time, conventional practice of brick manufacturing is not environment friendly due to high energy consumption and CO2 emissions during various stages of its production. Therefore, recent trend in research has been directed towards utilization of various industrial wastes and methods, which emerge as sustainable alternatives for environmental concerns arising in the construction industry. This study focused on utilizing mining waste, namely iron ore tailing (IOT) in development of stable blocks. It has reported various properties of compressed unfired blocks formed by IOT and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) in varying proportions and with a fixed amount of lime. The combination of GGBS and lime was found to be suitable in stabilizing IOT towards block production. Furthermore, a maximum compressive strength of 7.7 MPa was achieved for blocks after 28 days of air curing. Also, the addition of GGBS has reduced the water absorption and apparent porosity of the IOT blocks, confirming the positive interaction between IOT, GGBS and lime. It also indicates the prospective of blended binders in improving the compactness of the blocks, which will have direct influence on the durability and service life of the blocks. Finally, the results show that most of the developed blocks satisfy the requirement of IS 1077 specification and can be used in various applications such as load and non-load bearing walls, framed structures, foundations and pedestrian walkways.

Evaluation of Recycling Agent and Extender Dosage Selection Procedures to Restore the High-Temperature Climatic Performance Grade

Dosage selection is important for effective use of recycling agents and extenders in asphalt pavements. A standardized protocol for extender and recycling agent dosage selection does not presently exist. NCHRP Project 09-58 established a recycling agent dosage selection procedure that aims to restore the desired high-temperature grade of a blend of recycled binder, virgin binder, and additive. Their simplified procedure relies on the existence of class-specific relationships between the blended system high-temperature grade and additive content. Further, the dosage selection procedure assumes complete recycled binder availability. There is general consensus that complete recycled binder availability is not achieved in practice, which may yield asphalt mixtures with poor rutting performance. This study seeks to evaluate the universality of the slopes proposed in NCHRP Project 09-58 to both extenders and recycling agents and evaluate the rutting resistance of asphalt mixtures prepared using additive dosages selected to restore the high-temperature grade of the blended binder system. This study encompasses one reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) and one recycled asphalt shingles (RAS) mixture. Two extender and two recycling agent products were evaluated. The results indicate that different additive types yield different slopes of the blended system high-temperature grade versus additive content. The results also show that uncertainty should be accounted for when establishing a dosage selection procedure to ensure that the blended binder grade does not fall below the desired value. The rutting resistance of mixtures prepared using additive dosages intended to restore the high-temperature grade all passed recommended Hamburg wheel-track criteria.

Hydrogen bonds to balance mechanical and adhesive properties of pectin/polyacrylic acid blends as efficient binders for cathode in lithium-sulfur battery

Although lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries have attracted great interest due to the high energy density and low cost of sulfur, practical applications are still in demand due to various adverse processes leading to rapid capacity decay and poor cycle stability. In this study, polyacrylic acid (PAA) was hydrogen bonded (H bonded) to different proportions of pectin (PEC), to result in PAA/PEC(x) (x: wt% of PEC; = 14.4, 28.8 and 57.6) blend binders for sulfur-coated polypyrrole (PPy) (as S@PPy), rendering S@PPy/PAA/PEC(x) cathodes with their performance dependent on the PEC content in the binders. For PAA/PEC(x) binders, extent of H bond interactions can be adjusted by varying the blend composition, through which mechanical robustness and adhesive force can be balanced to obtain a superior binder with desired properties. The balanced mechanical and adhesive properties of PAA/PEC (28.8) make it the best binder, superior to PAA/PEC (14.4) and PAA/PEC (57.6), which can be integrated into a sulfur cathode exhibiting a high capacity of 831 mAh g−1 at 0.2 C after 100 cycles. Therefore, the inter-relationships between binder’s composition, H bond interaction, mechanical and adhesive properties of the binders and the electrochemical performance of the cathode are the focuses of this research.

Environmentally Friendly Methylcellulose Blend Binder for Hydrophobic Dust Control

Environmentally Friendly Methylcellulose Blend Binder for Hydrophobic Dust Control

Hydration characteristics and microstructure evolution of concrete with blended binders from LCD and OLED wastes

The use of pozzolanic waste materials as partial cement replacement is customary in contemporary concretes from the sustainability perspective. In this study, glass wastes from organic light-emitting diode (OLED) and liquid crystal display (LCD) were used waste as supplementary cementing material (SCM) in concrete. For the first time, detailed microstructural and hydration attributes have been studied for such blended concretes. Concretes with 10%, 20%, and 30% substitution of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) by OLED and LCD glass powders were developed. The resulting mechanical properties, hydration attributes, and microstructural features were studied at various ages, up to one year. Superior mechanical properties were shown after 28-day age for blended concretes; however, much profound improvement in compressive and flexural strength was observed at 1-year age. The enhanced mechanical properties of modified concretes are attributed to greater pozzolanic activity and secondary hydrates formation of OLED and LCD glass powders in alkaline cementitious matrix. Greater C-S-H gel formation, lower permeability, and more refined microstructure of the blended concrete were corroborated by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Rietveld quantitative phase analysis (RQPA), backscattered electron image analysis (BSE), and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP). 20 wt% has been found as the optimal value of cement replacement by either LCD or OLED powder. The results clearly indicate LCD and OLED can be successfully used as SCM for developing concrete with improved properties.

Recommendation of RILEM TC 264 RAP on the evaluation of asphalt recycling agents for hot mix asphalt

This recommendation is based on the results of an inter-laboratory study organised by the RILEM technical committee TC 264-RAP "Asphalt Pavement Recycling"—Task Group 3 (TG3) focusing on Asphalt Binder for Recycled Asphalt Mixture. The TG3 aimed to evaluate the effect of a specific family of materials known as asphalt recycling agent (ARA) on the aged binder under different configurations. Even though ageing is an irreversible phenomenon, effective ARA must have the capability to improve the flexibility of the bituminous materials and their resistance against cracking susceptibility with no adverse effect on the rutting resistance of pavements containing reclaimed asphalt. A total of 17 participating laboratories analysed the properties of binder blends composed of aged binder from reclaimed asphalt in three different contents (60, 80, 100%), ARA and virgin binder. The physical properties of the blends were thoroughly evaluated through traditional and rheological binder testing. This recommendation proposes to restore the original material properties at low and intermediate temperatures (i.e. cracking resistance) while balancing the high-temperature characteristics (i.e. rutting susceptibility) with durable impact throughout the progression of ageing phenomena. Therefore, useing of the Dynamic Shear Rheometer is foreseen as a more suitable and sustainable means to evaluate binder blends containing an asphalt recycling agent. Compared with conventional testing, the proposed approach requires fewer materials while resulting in a faster experimental procedure with one single test.

Critical Temperatures Blending Chart for Binder Blends Produced with RAP Binder and Rejuvenator

Abstract The objective of this article was to investigate the influence of a rejuvenator of vegetal origin on the behavior of several binder blends at low and high temperatures. An important characteristic of a binder is the critical temperatures that are related to the pavement performance (its susceptibility to temperature change). One fresh binder (50/70 penetration grade binder), a Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) binder, and a rejuvenator were blended in different dosages, and a total of 17 binders were tested. Complex shear modulus tests at high and intermediate temperatures and bending beam rheometer tests at low temperatures were performed in order to obtain the critical temperatures. Another objective was to estimate TDSRhighcritical and TBBRlowcritical for all blends from the experimental results of base constituents by using two estimation approaches (a classical and a proposed approach, which is an original input of this work). A statistical analysis was performed in order to highlight their validity. Good correlation was found between the experimental and the estimated results. However, a more accurate estimation was performed with the proposed approach that has the great advantage of requiring only the temperature values and concentrations (a,b,c) for the three base components (respectively, fresh binder, RAP binder, and rejuvenator).

Effect of Chemical Components of Asphalt Binders on Fatigue Resistance of Binder and Asphalt Mixtures in High Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement Mixtures

Abstract In this paper, correlations between the chemical components and fatigue parameters of the binder blends containing reclaimed asphalt binder (RAB) were evaluated. Fatigue resistance of RAB-containing binder blends were evaluated by dynamic shear rheometer and linear amplitude sweep tests. Chemical components of asphalt binders were determined by saturate, aromatic, resin, and asphaltene fractionation test. Furthermore, four-point beam fatigue test was utilized for evaluating the fatigue resistance of asphalt mixtures containing reclaimed asphalt pavement. Based on the obtained results, strong correlations between chemical parameters of the binder and fatigue life of asphalt binders and mixtures were established.