Blackjack Game Research Articles

All in! The commercial advertising of offshore gambling on television

There is a paucity of research on the advertising of gambling, especially the intensely marketed Internet poker and blackjack games. This study examines ads that aired on cable television in one Canadian jurisdiction. Using quantitative and qualitative methods, we analyze 64 distinct commercials that aired 904 times over a 6-month period. Our findings show that these ads target audiences along age, gender, and ethnic lines and mobilize celebrities, excitement, and humour as persuasive techniques to promote the view that on-line gambling is an entertainment experience in which skill prevails over luck, winning dominates losing, fantasy overshadows reality, leisure trumps work, and the potential for personal change eclipses the routines of everyday life. We conclude that the e-gambling advertising assemblage, with its high-volume exposure, attractiveness, pervasiveness, and repetitiveness of messaging is now an embedded feature of everyday life that is especially connected to popular sport culture and to the fun ethic of contemporary consumer culture.

The neural basis of risky decision-making in a blackjack task

To investigate the neural substrates of risky decision making in gambling tasks, we recorded event-related potentials while participants engaged in a modified blackjack game. We focused on the high-conflict condition (probability of losing approximately 50%) and low-conflict condition (probability of losing approximately 20%). We were also interested in the difference between risky and conservative responses under high-conflict conditions. In the 220-320 and 500-600 ms time windows, high-conflict conditions elicited more negative event-related potential deflections than low-conflict conditions. In the latter time window, risky conditions elicited more negative event-related potential deflections than conservative conditions. The N2 (220-320 ms) and N500 (500-600 ms) provide evidence for the dissociation of neural circuits between perceptual and response conflicts.

Perceptions of Personality in Computer Agents: Effects of Culture and Gender

Developing computer agents with personalities may be one way to enhance human-machine collaboration. To create computer agents with personalities it is essential to identify the actions, language, and/or behaviors that people indicate signify the personalities they perceive. Additionally it is possible that culture and gender may play a role in how computer personalities are perceived. This research investigated how culture and gender affect the perception of computer personalities within a computer game. Participants were asked to rate the computer characters in a blackjack game based on the Big Five Factor personality trait model and to describe the actions, language, and/or behaviors that gave them their impressions. The results show that participants did perceive personality in the computer characters and were able to describe actions, languages and behaviors leading to their perceptions. The results indicated that there were no statistically significant differences based on culture and gender differences. This research provides a starting point for development of computer agents with personalities incorporating personality theory into model development.

The Influence of an Opponent and Time Pressure in Risky Naturalistic Decision Making

This experiment assessed the extent to which the presence of an opponent and time pressure affected risk-taking behavior in a modified blackjack game developed by Dror et al. (1999). Eighty-two college students executed a series of blackjack hands that varied with respect to risk level (none, low, medium, high, very high, infinite), time pressure (yes/no), and presence of an opponent (no opponent, human opponent, computer opponent). Choice probability (participants' willingness to take an additional card) and choice response time were the dependent variables of interest. Consistent with previous research (Burke & Murray, 2001; Dror et al., 1999), participants were less likely to take an additional card as risk level increased. As predicted, response time data showed that participants took more time to make decisions at the low, medium, and high risk levels and that time pressure reduced response time across all risk levels. In general, the presence of an opponent led to an increase in the frequency of choosing to take an additional card across all risk levels, especially at the risk levels requiring more difficult decisions. Consistent with predictions, the findings suggest that the presence of an opponent and especially a human opponent, have an important role in the way that people make risky decisions.

From power to action.

Three experiments investigated the hypothesis that power increases an action orientation in the power holder, even in contexts where power is not directly experienced. In Experiment 1, participants who possessed structural power in a group task were more likely to take a card in a simulated game of blackjack than those who lacked power. In Experiment 2, participants primed with high power were more likely to act against an annoying stimulus (a fan) in the environment, suggesting that the experience of power leads to the performance of goal-directed behavior. In Experiment 3, priming high power led to action in a social dilemma regardless of whether that action had prosocial or antisocial consequences. The effects of priming power are discussed in relation to the broader literature on conceptual and mind-set priming.

Casino gambling increases heart rate and salivary cortisol in regular gamblers

Background: Although the effects of gambling on cardiovascular parameters have been documented, no data exists describing the effect of gambling on stress hormone secretion. Our study investigated the effect of gambling on heart rate and salivary cortisol in a casino environment. Methods: Ten male gamblers participated in both an experimental and control session. In the experimental session, gamblers played a game of blackjack using their own money. Gamblers played cards in the same setting during the control condition; however, the game was played for accumulation of points rather than money. Heart rate and endocrine parameters were recorded at baseline, 30 min, and 60 min following commencement of each session, and again at completion of the game. Results: Heart rate increased significantly from baseline to 30 min in the experimental session and remained elevated for the remainder of the recording period. Salivary cortisol was raised at 30 min and further elevated at 60 min during gambling, then returned to control levels following completion of the game. Conclusions: These data indicate that gambling in a “real life” situation produces increases in salivary cortisol levels that accompany increased cardiovascular activity. Such effects may contribute to the development of gambling addiction.

Cheating at Blackjack: The Case of the Barthelme Brothers

IN NOVEMBER OF 1996, Frederick and Steven Barthelme were accused of cheating while playing blackjack at the Grand Casino in Gulfport, Mississippi. They were told to leave the casino and not return. They would later be indicted for “willfully, unlawfully and feloniously acquir[ing] knowledge not available to all players of the outcome of blackjack games.” The dealer (Cindy) would also be indicted at the same time. In August 1999, the charges against the brothers were dropped, although at the time of this writing, Wojciechowski is still facing criminal charges in the Harrison County Circuit Court. Both the Barthelmes and the dealer have maintained their innocence throughout this ordeal. Frederick (“Rick”) and Steven (“Steve”) are English professors at the University of Southern Mississippi. Rick has even published 11 works of fiction, including a novel, Bob the Gambler. Partly because of their reputation in the literary world, their story gained national media attention, appearing in numerous magazines and on the front page of The New York Times. In 1999, they published an autobiography, Double Down: Reflections on Gambling and Loss, discussing their addiction to gambling and their version of their run-in with the law. This article examines the crime with which the Barthelmes were charged and the reason the Harrison County District Attorney later decided to drop the charges. CHEATING AT CARDS IN MISSISSIPPI CASINOS

A formative evaluation of scenario-based tools for learning object-oriented design

Advances in computing have awakened a century old teaching philosophy: learner-centered education. This philosophy is founded on the premise that people learn best when engrossed in the topic, participating in activities that motivate learning and help them to synthesize their own understanding. We consider how the object-oriented design (OOD) learning tools developed by Rosson and Carroll [5] facilitate active learning of this sort. We observed sixteen students as they worked through a set of user interaction scenarios about a blackjack game. We discuss how the features of these learning tools influenced the students' efforts to learn the basic constructs of OOD.

The relationship between gambling and video-game playing behavior in children and adolescents

It is suggested that commercial video-games (e.g.Nintendo &Sega) and gambling activities have similar attractive features and intermittent reinforcement schedules. This research seeks to examine the nature of this relationship amongst children. One hundred and four children aged 9 to 14, from grades 4, 6, and 8, participated. A questionnaire exploring issues related to video-game playing and gambling behavior in children and adolescents was completed and a computerized blackjack game was individually administered. High frequency video-game players were compared to low frequency video-game players with respect to their gambling performance on the blackjack gambling task as well as on information gathered from the questionnaire. Of particular concern is the risk-taking strategies used by avid video-game players, whether or not children perceive gambling and video-games as involving similar amounts of skill or whether they realize that gambling is primarily a game of chance. The findings, in general, suggest that high frequency video-game players gamble more than low frequency video-game players, report that gambling makes them feel more important, and take greater risks on the blackjack gambling task although no overall differences in success were found. Males exhibited greater risk-taking tendencies on the blackjack task than females. The clinical implications of the findings are addressed.

A developmental perspective of gambling behavior in children and adolescents

Although it has been determined that gambling is a popular activity amongst the young, there seems to be a lack of studies examining developmental differences in children's gambling behavior. This study examines developmental differences in children's blackjack gambling behavior. One hundred and four students (51 males; 53 females) from grades 4, 6, and 8 completed a questionnaire examining their gambling behavior in general and individually played a computerized blackjack game with the following data being recorded: percentage of accuracy, amounts of money bet, gross winnings, percentage of wins, number of hands played, and end balance. Findings revealed few developmental differences in prevalence and frequency of gambling behavior and performance on a blackjack task. Males were found to wager greater amounts of money and have larger gross winnings than females on the blackjack task. Furthermore, males were more likely to view gambling as involving both large amounts of skill and luck, thus suggesting an illusion of control for gambling activities. The results are discussed from a cognitive developmental perspective.

The Mental Simulation of Better and Worse Possible Worlds

Counterfactual thinking involves the imagination of non-factual alternatives to reality. We investigated the spontaneous generation of both upward counterfactuals, which improve on reality, and downward counterfactuals, which worsen reality. All subjects gained $5 playing a computer-simulated blackjack game. However, this outcome was framed to be perceived as either a win, a neutral event, or a loss. "Loss" frames produced more upward and fewer downward counterfactuals than did either "win" or "neutral" frames, but the overall prevalence of counterfactual thinking did not vary with outcome valence. In addition, subjects who expected to play the game again made more upward counterfactuals and were less satisfied with the outcome than were subjects who did not expect to play again. However, once subjects saw the cards from which they could have selected had they "hit" again (two winning cards and two losing cards), all subjects generated primarily upward counterfactuals and showed a corresponding decrease in satisfaction. These results implicate both cognitive and motivational factors in the generation of counterfactuals and tell us something about the functional value of counterfactual thinking: downward counterfactuals provide comfort; upward counterfactuals prepare one for the future.

Factors influencing wagers in simulated Blackjack

To understand some of the deviations from recommended optimal play in Blackjack, gamblers were considered to be decision makers who used decision rules to predict outcomes. The size of their wagers were used as an index of the confidence of these predictions. If this were the case, players' decisions would be affected by time pressure, short-term probability of winning, and their perceived control of outcomes. Players' wagering on a simulated game of Blackjack was examined to assess the feasibility of this approach. The computer simulation of Blackjack used simplified rules (no splitting, doubling down, insurance, etc.), and the probability of winning was controlled by the computer. Subjects could either choose whether they were dealt extra cards, or could bet upon “another player.” The “other player” was a computer algorithm that sat upon a total of fifteen. To examine effects of time pressure upon confidence of judgments, the time allowed to place a bet, and to choose extra cards, was manipulated. Twelve subjects played 20 hands under each of the experimental conditions. The mean amounts wagered, and players' choice of cards were both examined. The results suggested that deviations from optimal play can in part be understood in terms of players' decision processes, that are influenced by the time available to make a decision, the short-term probability of winning, and perceived control of outcomes; each factor may potentiate the effects of the others.

Calibration of probability assessments by professional blackjack dealers, statistical experts, and lay people

The question addressed in this study is whether experts are better calibrated than lay people. We investigated how well people are calibrated when they assess the probabilities of card combinations in the game of blackjack. Three groups of subjects were used: professional dealers, statistical experts, and control subjects. The results showed that experience and statistical expertise do not make people better calibrated in this task. It is argued that the concept of calibration is not wholly appropriate to describe the obtained deviations from the normatively correct responses. This is illustrated by a discriminant analysis performed on the signed deviation scores, which resulted in an almost perfect separation of the three groups, although they were overlapping with respect to calibration.

An Analytic Derivation of Blackjack Win Rates

We study the win rate for the game of blackjack and derive a stochastic model for the advantage (i.e., expected win) process. Assuming proportional betting, we derive an explicit formula that estimates the win rate as a function of the number of decks used and the proportion of cards dealt before reshuffling. We derive a relationship between the “aggressiveness” of betting and risk. Risk is measured as the probability of wealth dropping below a specified level before it exceeds a higher, specified level.