Black Sea Economic Cooperation Research Articles

Analysis of the provisions of the legislation of Georgia and Ukraine related to mobilization

Russian military aggression against Ukraine continues for the eleventh year. Terrorist in methods and neo-colonial in essence – now it has acquired an existential character. Russia considers regaining its influence on the post-Soviet territories, among which Ukraine occupies a special place, as one of the priorities of its foreign policy. The first phase of the war, which began in 2014, did not stop the integration of Ukraine into the Euro-Atlantic space, so the full-scale aggression, which began on February 24, 2022, was supposed to finally resolve the issue of the existence of an independent Ukraine. The political goals of the so-called «special military operation» were to change the political system and the Euro-Atlantic course of Ukraine. In the third year of the full-scale invasion, according to the determination of the top military leadership of the Armed Forces of Ukraine (hereinafter referred to as the Armed Forces of Ukraine), the war has reached the level of a protracted positional war, and in order to confront the enemy, Ukraine needs international assistance and the mobilization of all available resources: military, economic, and the most valuable – human. The analysis of the defense legislation of Georgia is of interest in view of the common colonial past of Ukraine and Georgia, the identical starting principles of the construction of the Armed Forces, the practical experience of armed aggression by the Russian Federation (hereinafter – the Russian Federation), access to the Black Sea, the occupation of part of the sovereign territories and the legally defined Euro-Atlantic course of development. Ukraine and Georgia are also members of the subregional association of 12 countries of the Black Sea region – the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization (BSEC), which increases their status in the negotiations on possible future accession to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (hereinafter – NATO) and the European Union (hereinafter – the EU). Ukrainian legislation in the field of defense requires normalization of issues of military service, mobilization, creation of a mobilization reserve, and reformation through codification. The updated legislation in the field of mobilization and management of mobilization resources should form the basis of the future consolidated codified act – the Defense Code of Ukraine.

Maritime Diplomacy and Regional Cooperation Mechanisms: Insights from the Black Sea and Bay of Bengal

This article conducts a comparative analysis of maritime diplomacy in the Black Sea and Bay of Bengal, focusing on the challenges and strategies of regional cooperation mechanisms like the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization (BSEC) and the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC). It explores the unique geopolitical contexts of these maritime regions, addressing issues such as territorial disputes, resource competition, piracy and environmental concerns. The study examines the influence of external powers, including Russia, the EU, China and the USA, and their impact on regional dynamics. Utilizing a comparative analysis approach, the study examines the geopolitical dynamics, roles and effectiveness of BSEC and BIMSTEC in promoting economic integration, security collaboration and crisis response, along with the influence of external powers on these dynamics. The findings reveal the pivotal roles of both organizations in addressing maritime challenges, despite facing issues like economic disparity among members and geopolitical tensions. Key initiatives like joint naval exercises and security agreements have been effective in enhancing regional maritime security and stability. The study concludes by highlighting the need for strengthening organizational frameworks, enhancing transparency and integrating environmental considerations into maritime diplomacy, considering emerging trends like cybersecurity and the increasing role of non-traditional actors.

The Persian Gulf-Black Sea International Transport and Transit Corridor: Goals and Constraints

ABSTRACT The Persian Gulf-Black Sea International Transport and Transit Corridor is a multimodal and combined network of ships, rails, and road freight routes connecting Iran, Armenia, Georgia, Bulgaria, and Greece. Iran is the trustee of the agreement and has played the central role in establishing a transit route to the Black Sea region as ‘Tehran’s forgotten bridge to Europe’ since its inception in 2016. Nonetheless, the Persian Gulf-Black Sea Corridor faces significant obstacles and challenges: resolving Iran’s nuclear issues, resolving disputes between Armenia and the Republic of Azerbaijan, and stabilizing the security situation in the Black Sea following the Ukraine war, all of which reduce its efficiency and quality. In these circumstances, connecting the Iranian railway to the Caucasus and Armenia and building Armenia’s North-South highway and the deep port of Anaklia on Georgia’s Black Sea coast can stretch the capacities of the Persian Gulf-Black Sea Corridor. It can also strengthen the Wider Black Sea Region and the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC).

Urbanization, renewable energy production, and carbon dioxide emission in BSEC member states: implications for climate change mitigation and energy markets.

As the world's population grows, the energy demand continues to rise due to advancements in technology and the impact of globalization. The finite nature of traditional energy sources has accelerated the shift toward renewable energy, particularly in developing countries where environmental degradation and declining quality of life are significant concerns. This study delves into the interplay between urbanization, carbon dioxide emissions, economic growth, and renewable energy production in Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation member states, providing new insights into the energy market. By using annual data from 1995 to 2020 and advanced panel cointegration tests, this study provides a comprehensive analysis of the determinants of renewable energy for developing countries. The findings show a substantial and long-term relationship between urbanization, emissions, growth, and renewable energy production. These findings have important implications for policymakers and underscore the critical role of renewable energy in mitigating climate change in developing countries.

National Policy of Black Sea Region Countries Towards Sustainable Development

The authors consider the integration of the concept of sustainability in the member countries of the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC). The concept of sustainable development is viewed through the prism of economic, social and environmental approaches. The subject of the study is the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in the BSEC countries. The purpose of the research is to study the integration of the goals and indicators of sustainable development in the national policies of the BSECcountries. The relevance lies in the international community’s growing attention to forming a vector for balanced socio-economic development, taking into account current social, demographic and environmental factors. The scientific novelty lies in the analysis of the advancement of the concept of sustainable development in the BSEC countries, as well as the level of integration of the SDGs in the national policies of states. As part of the study, the authors used the methods of institutional analysis, system analysis, analysis of statistical data and official documents. Based on the results of the analysis, it was revealed that despite the high level of integration of the SDGs within the framework of the BSEC, not all goals and indicators of sustainable development formed by the United Nations (UN) are tracked in countries. The authors concluded that the national characteristics of the economy, the social sphere and the environmental situation push states to adapt individual indicators to national specifics.

The evaluation of Turkey's foreign trade with different country groups within the framework of the gravity model

The gravity model is based on the law known as the gravitational law discovered by Newton and was first used by Tinbergen to explain the foreign trade flow. It assumes that the size of the countries affects the foreign trade flow positively and the distance variable affects the foreign trade flow negatively. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization was established under the leadership of Turkey to develop foreign trade with the countries that declared their autonomy. Similar to the story of the disintegrating Soviets, the Balkan Countries also declared their independence by leaving Yugoslavia. This study aims to investigate whether the gravity model is appropriate to explain Turkey’s exports and imports to the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC), Balkan and selected countries during the 1996-2019 period. Export and import were used as dependent variables. Gravity model variables such as GDP, distance, population, language and common border variables were used to explain the exports and imports of the respective countries. For all these models, panel data analysis techniques were employed; pooled, random and fixed effects models were estimated and then tests for the model selection were carried out to choose the most appropriate model. After the appropriate models were determined, the assumption tests were executed. As a result of the study, it was concluded that the gravity model was suitable to explain Turkey’s imports to the Balkan countries and exports to the selected country groups. The results of the study suggested that while the gravity model was suitable for explaining the factors affecting Turkey’s trade flow for some country groups, it further suggested that it was not suitable for some countries.

Marine trade and analysis of the ports in the Black Sea economic cooperation region

ABSTRACT This paper aims to (i) investigate the crucial role of marine trade, (ii) reveal the main characteristics and the integrating role of ports, (iii) analyse the networks of ports serving at the international level, produce route maps, and examine transportation corridors affecting the BSEC region that constitutes a significant part of Southeast Europe. In this context, we have carried out the social network analysis (SNA), which allows an understanding of the network structure, social dynamics, trends, and the actors’ effects in the network. According to SNA, Romania – Constanta Port, Bulgaria – Burgas Port, Ukraine – Chornomorsk Port, Russian Federation – Novorossiysk Port, Georgia – Batumi Port, and Turkey – Samsunport are the most prominent ports of the region. Due to the features they have and their involvement in international transportation projects, the ports are a tool for directing/accelerating foreign trade and marine traffic and developing economic cooperation between countries in the Black Sea Region.

Turkish-Russian Relations within the BSEC

The article provides a brief analysis of the history of development and the current state of the Russian-Turkish partnership within the framework of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization, which can be considered a functional area of cooperation that uses the convergence of the countries of the region by creating cooperation on various issues, such as the production of energy from underground resources of strategic importance for the region, agricultural production and tourism. In addition to this, the Black Sea Economic Organization is of notable importance in terms of sustaining stability in the region due to addressing the growing security concerns in the Black Sea region. The concept of a global security threat changed shape with the end of the Cold War. This led to a change in the view of international organizations on defense and allowed a focus on increasing the level of stability through the global policy of cooperation organizations created for security and economic purposes. The article also describes the measures and results of the two countries to ensure the fuel and energy balance in the Black Sea region, steps to reduce political tension associated with Turkey's participation in a strategic partnership with the EU countries, key projects in the fuel and energy sector. It should be noted that the identity of the historical destinies of Russia and Turkey, their historical and cultural role of the "East" in the West and "West" in the East, the unique geopolitical position, geographical proximity contribute to the strengthening of economic, political, cultural ties between Russia and Turkey.

Turkish-Russian Relations within the BSEC

The article provides a brief analysis of the history of development and the current state of the Russian-Turkish partnership within the framework of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization, which can be considered a functional area of cooperation that uses the convergence of the countries of the region by creating cooperation on various issues, such as the production of energy from underground resources of strategic importance for the region, agricultural production and tourism. In addition to this, the Black Sea Economic Organization is of notable importance in terms of sustaining stability in the region due to addressing the growing security concerns in the Black Sea region. The concept of a global security threat changed shape with the end of the Cold War. This led to a change in the view of international organizations on defense and allowed a focus on increasing the level of stability through the global policy of cooperation organizations created for security and economic purposes. The article also describes the measures and results of the two countries to ensure the fuel and energy balance in the Black Sea region, steps to reduce political tension associated with Turkey's participation in a strategic partnership with the EU countries, key projects in the fuel and energy sector. It should be noted that the identity of the historical destinies of Russia and Turkey, their historical and cultural role of the "East" in the West and "West" in the East, the unique geopolitical position, geographical proximity contribute to the strengthening of economic, political, cultural ties between Russia and Turkey.

DEVELOPMENT OF PRİORİTİES AND PROSPECTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES IN AZERBAIJAN

DEVELOPMENT OF PRİORİTİES AND PROSPECTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES IN AZERBAIJAN

UPR’s Diplomacy at the Conclusion of the National Liberation Struggle: The 1921 Black Sea Union

The article offers an insight into the foreign policy of the Ukrainian People’s Republic at the final stage of the national liberation struggle. Author analyses the UPR’s course towards forging stable political and economic alliances with the peripheral states that have emerged on the post-imperial territory of russia. The most ambitious project of 1919–20 was the creation of the Baltic-Black Sea Union consisting of Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Poland, Finland, and Ukraine; however, the legal aspects of the organisation of the Black Sea Union became of primary importance in late November 1920. The certain aspirations for its formation were based on the intensification of anti-Bolshevik insurgent movements in the regions on the Don, Kuban, and Terek Rivers, in Dagestan and Chechnya, the existence of the Republic of Mountainous Armenia and the Democratic Republic of Georgia, which were independent from the kremlin. During the spring–autumn of 1921, the governments-in-exile of the Ukrainian People’s Republic, the Georgian Democratic Republic, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, and the Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus completed the treaty and legal formalisation of the Black Sea Union. Yet, the project was not implemented de-facto: the then military and political situation in Central and Eastern Europe and the Caucasus was not favourable for the successful struggle for independence of the peripheral states of the former empire. In the late 20th century, Ukraine and the Transcaucasian countries restored their independence, thus creating new political realities in Europe. It became possible to implement effective projects of the Black Sea sub-regional associations, in particular the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organisation and Organisation for Democracy and Economic Development (GUAM), aimed at the development of a network of transport connections and broad economic cooperation. Keywords: Black Sea Union, Ukrainian People’s Republic, Democratic Republic of Georgia, Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan, Republic of North Caucasus Mountaineers, peripheral states, government-in-exile.

Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy in the Black Sea Region

The article analyzes the achievements, prospects and issues of Ukrainian cultural diplomacy in the Black Sea region. It outlines different levels of cultural cooperation in the region, in which the goals of Ukraine's cultural diplomacy can be realized: cooperation within UNESCO, cooperation within the Eastern European Partnership, cooperation within the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC), cooperation within bilateral cultural contacts. It is emphasized that all formats of cultural interaction complement each other and can have a synergistic effect. It is noted that Ukraine is one of the few countries that has participated in the ICDS testing, and together with Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan can set a precedent for the regional application of this methodology by UNESCO. Ukrainian cultural diplomacy in the Black Sea region is also considered in connection with the state’s European integration obligations under the "Association Agreement between Ukraine and the EU". Summarizing the level of activity in the field of cultural diplomacy in the region, it is noted that Ukraine is not fully aware of the importance of cultural diplomacy tools for resolving the conflict situation related to the occupation of the Crimean Peninsula by the Russian Federation. Examining the content of the "Strategy of Public Policy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine 2021-2025", a recommendation was made to supplement the list of target regions for cultural diplomacy of Ukraine with the Black Sea region as an integral socio-cultural object.

Protecting the environment as an international process: Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC)

At In this paper, it was attempted to examine and analyze the environmental and sociological impact of Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization (BSEC) that was established in June 1992 in Istanbul. Members of the organization are Albania, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Armenia, Georgia, Moldova, Romania, Russia, Turkey, Ukraine and Greece. The researchers and scholars should keep in mind that The Commission on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution (the Black Sea Commission or BSC), through its Permanent Secretariat, is the intergovernmental association founded in execution of the Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution (Bucharest Convention), its Protocols and the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. Therefore, through BSEC, in the Summit Declaration signed with the participation of the Heads of State and Government of 11 member countries, the Black Sea region is envisaged to be a zone of peace, stability, and welfare. The mechanism chosen to achieve this goal is environmental, economic and social cooperation.

Evaluation of human capital performance of the countries by CRITIC and COPRAS methods: an application on the members of the organization of the black sea economic cooperation

This study aims to evaluate the members of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization (BSEC) in terms of human capital performance using CRITIC (Criteria Importance Through Intercriteria Correlation) and COPRAS (Complex Proportional Assessment) methods. A hybrid method has been used in analysis. This integrated model consists of a combination of CRITIC and COPRAS methods. The CRITIC method was used to find the objective weights of the criteria. The COPRAS method was used to rank the countries according to their performance. The infant mortality rate (per 1,000 live births), unemployment rate (percentage of the total labour force), average life expectancy at birth, total (years), labour force participation rate (percentage of the total population aged 15-64), current health expenditure (percentage of GDP), internet users (percentage of the total population) and population aged 15-64 (percentage of the total population) are used as criteria for measuring the human capital of countries. 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2018 data of the countries were used in the study. According to the analysis result, Serbia, Greece, Romania in 2000, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria in 2005, Greece, Russia, Bulgaria, in 2010, Russia, Moldova, Bulgaria in 2015, Russia, Romania and Bulgaria in 2018 are the top three countries with the highest human capital performance. Countries with the lowest human capital performance are as follows: Azerbaijan, Albania, Armenia in 2000 and 2005; Azerbaijan, Armenia, Turkey, in 2010; Turkey, Azerbaijan, Albania in 2015 and 2018.

The Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) Organization: Civil Cooperation Strategies

Efforts by individual countries or groups of Black Sea’s surroundings countries to cooperate have remained on the agenda of these countries for the last quarter of a century. However, it was a generally accepted assessment that the point reached in spite of all the struggles was not satisfactory. Especially today, we are targeting very serious regional war scenarios, which has found supporters on global and regional scale, which threaten peace and tranquility. It has become more important than ever that the countries of the region come together and join forces. On the other hand, in view of the neo-liberal global economic movements, it is understood that the countries of the region are in need of each other. These countries need to come together and establish a dialoge and partnership networks.From this point of view, efforts to develop socio-economic and cultural relations between the countries of the Black Sea region at the institutional level (public and private sector) in such a way that the people are directly involved are strategically important for the socio-cultural integration of societies and the development of commercial relations as well as to ensure regional security. In our article, after analyzing the structure and activities of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization, which will celebrate its 30th anniversary in 2023, what the strategic relationship formats between the countries in the region can be and how they can be developed will be discussed.

Energy Security of the Black Sea Region: Geostrategy and Geoenergy Measurement

The purpose of the article is the analysis of the state of energy security in the states of the Black Sea region in terms of the geopolitics and geostrategies of different regional and international political forces. Energy security is interpreted as the provision of steady energy supply from different types and sources (diversification) and energy market stability. Energy security analysts have always emphasized the importance of energy and energy policies, but too often focused solely on the utilization of resources as an element of political power. The problem of energy and its security is often viewed as vague, misunderstood or unsolvable, with countries hostage to threats with hazardous consequences. A quality selection of analytical and statistical resources has been made to identify energy security problems, such as the growing dependence of most advanced industrial countries on oil and gas supplies, and increasing demand from developing economies for fuel. The objectives of the study are based on the notion of the regional division between the states of the Black Sea basin. The results of the study are founded on the analysis of the operations of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization and the geostrategic and geopolitics interests of the major players in the Black Sea region in the context of their energy security. The article is concluded with the suggestion of a potential solution to the problem of uneven geographic distribution of energy resources such as oil and gas on the political map of the world. The political instruments for influencing energy security in the EU, NATO, USA, Russia and Turkey are analyzed in the article. Recommendations for reducing potential conflicts in the Black Sea region and minimizing the impact on the energy security of the states involved by providing a steady energy supply are given.

SECURITY CHALLENGES AT THE BLACK SEA REGION IN THE FIRST QUARTER OF 21ST CENTURY

The lifelong geostrategic significance of the Black Sea region is indisputable. It has been an inalienable trade routes factor between Europe and Asia for centuries, as well as a distinct bridgehead for influence in the Middle East. Quite often the Straits connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean Sea cause conflict of interests and clashes between the Great Powers. Unlike the Mediterranean basin or the Baltic Sea, the Black Sea region is not historically and culturally homogeneous. During the Cold War, the border between East and West passes here. Today the Black Sea region is a kind of border between the Euro-Atlantic and Russian security system, as the main power factors in the arena are the actors with global and regional claims: USA, EU, Russia, China, Turkey. The globalization process and the development of the neo-liberal doctrine outlined a new multipolar world with various security risks and threats. The Black Sea region is a classic example of two parallel existing processes. With the attempt to integrate − by establishing regional trans-national institutions – the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC), Black Sea For, as well as the vigorous opposition to the interests of the global forces and their impact on the behavior of regional players and small countries.The Black Sea region is a zone of confrontation of geopolitical players, and their opposition has its regional and national dimensions. The regional geo-economic project “Trimorie”, as well as the Russian initiatives (“Turkish Stream”, “Blue Stream”) once again assign the Black Sea Basin the status of a serious arena of conflict of interests of major global players. Given the current energy aspects of security, the Black Sea undoubtedly plays an important role in regional and international security.

REGIONALISM AS A DIRECTION IN THE MARITIME POLICY OF UKRAINE: THE UPDATING OF LEGAL REGULATION

The possibilities of regional and subregional cooperation as one of the main directions of modern maritime policy of Ukraine are highlighted and analysed in the article. The directions of updating and development of legal provision of such cooperation in the Black Sea and connected to it regions are outlined. The directions of modern regionalism, enshrined in the updated Maritime Doctrine of Ukraine for the period up to 2035, are considered. It is marked out an increase in attention to regional mechanisms of cooperation in comparison with the previous version of the Doctrine. The preconditions, current state and opportunities for the development of regional cooperation of Ukraine in the maritime sphere within the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, the EU and in the field of the development of the TRASECA transport corridor are analyzed. The complex of selected research methods (analysis and synthesis, formal legal research, scientific forecasting, etc.) allowed to form the proposals for the conceptual update of the legal regulation of regional cooperation in the Black Sea and connected to it regions. The importance of regionalism for cooperation of states in the maritime sphere is noted. Regional and subregional efforts can best solve the multifaceted problems of coastal countries. The integrative role of economic cooperation for collaboration of the countries of the Black Sea region is emphasized. Considering that the modern legal regulation of examined cooperation has a formed qualitative legal basis, domestic efforts should not stop, combined with the pragmatism of political initiatives. The factors of regional cooperation development in the Black Sea region are classified. These include the following: joint participation of the countries of the region in international agreements of a global nature; audit and updating of existing regional agreements; developing a maritime policy that will be able to outweigh political ambitions and finally establish an atmosphere of mutual respect and mutually beneficial partnership for peace and development. These proposals are able to contribute to the renewal and revitalization of regional cooperation, have access to the practical side of the formation and implementation of modern maritime policy of Ukraine.

Исследование готовности стран Организации Черноморского Экономического Сотрудничества к внедрению принципов «зеленой» экономики

Цель : статья посвящена изучению степени сформированности «зеленой» экономики в странах Организации Черноморского экономического сотрудничества (ОЧЭС). С помощью статистического анализа выявить особенности и сгруппировать страны по схожим признакам. Подробно рассмотреть экологический показатель (СО2), значительно влияющий на уровень развития «зеленой» экономики. Обсужде ние : глобальные проблемы неустойчивости мировых систем привели к тому, что обострились социально-экономические и экологические проблемы, тем самым подтолкнув международные организации к разработке стратегических проектов по предотвращению изменения климата. Результаты : автором проведен кластерный анализ, с помощью которого страны ОЧЭС сгруппированы по максимально схожим признакам. Полученные результаты показали, что страны значительно дифференцированы по уровню развития «зеленой» экономики. Основываясь на полученных выводах, необходимы дальнейшие усилия по разработке и осуществлению экологических инициатив для успешной реализации «зеленой» экономики в ОЧЭС.

Dynamics of Bilateral Cooperation between Russia and Bulgaria at the Present stage

The purpose of this article is to examine Bulgarian-Russian relations. The author provided a detailed analysis of some economic areas of bilateral cooperation, taking into account transformations in the international system, European sanctions, and scientific prerequisites for further development. The material presents a brief analysis of the course of the recent mutual meetings of the heads of state, as well as their representatives. The author also considers the prerequisites for the formation of diplomatic relations between Russia and Bulgaria. The author expresses the opinion that there exists a positive vector of development of political dialogue with regards to the analysis of the leading parties in Bulgaria and cultural similarity of countries. The author paid particular attention to trade and economic cooperation, using official statistics of the Federal Customs Service of Russia are given (based on the report on foreign trade between Russia and Bulgaria in 2018: trade, exports, imports, structure, goods, dynamic). Russia ranked sixth in the number of foreign tourists visiting Bulgaria. Therefore, the sphere of tourism in bilateral relations needs more detailed review. The decline for 2018 can only be attributed to the World Cup in Russia, intense competition from other areas, as well as the fluctuation of the exchange rate of ruble. The author considered business forums such as, for example, “Bulgarian Business Day in Russia: Bulgaria — a bridge to the European Union” and cooperation in the field of education and science, with Financial University as the leading partner of the Bulgarian universities. The author discussed some issues of regional cooperation within the framework of the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) as the platform for dialogue between the countries. The material is dedicated to the celebration of 140 years of diplomatic relations between Russia and Bulgaria.