Black Ginseng Research Articles

Ginsenosides Rg5 and Rk1, the skin-whitening agents in black ginseng

Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is widely used to treat various chronic disorders. Black ginseng is obtained by repeated steaming and drying of raw ginseng, which turn it black and convert the ginsenoside compounds present into more potent bioactive ingredients. The effects of a black ginseng extract on melanin production and skin whitening were evaluated in vitro as well as in vivo using human skin and zebrafish embryos. Tyrosinase activity decreased when steamed and dried ginseng was used. A pronounced skin-whitening effect was observed in our clinical study, and inhibition of melanin activity and tyrosinase levels was confirmed in zebrafish embryos. Two ginsenosides specific to black ginseng activate the MEK-ERK signaling pathway and are the main factors responsible for skin whitening. The skin-whitening effects of black ginseng are associated with the formation of two ginsenosides, indicating that black ginseng can be used as a novel skin-whitening agent in cosmetic products.

Effect of gamma irradiation on the anti-oxidant and anti-melanogenic activity of black ginseng extract in B16F10 melanoma cells

Black ginseng extract (BGE) was irradiated at various doses (10, 30, 50, 70, and 100 kGy) to improve its biological activity. The content of reducing sugar was significantly increased by gamma irradiation up to 100 kGy. The gamma-irradiated BGE showed its highest anti-oxidant activity (DPPH radical scavenging activity-IC50 = 4.33 µg, ABTS radical scavenging activity-IC50 = 2.39 µg, FRAP AEAC = 6.46), and mushroom tyrosinase inhibition activity (IC50 = 12.46 mg) when irradiated at the dose of 100 kGy. The gamma-irradiated BGE showed a greater inhibitory effect on IBMX-induced melanin synthesis (121.43%), intracellular tyrosinase activity (91.80%), melanogenic enzyme expression (tyrosinase, TRP-1, and TRP-2), as well as H2O2-induced reactive oxygen species production, than was observed with the non-irradiated BGE-treated group (melanin synthesis-146.21% and intracellular tyrosinase activity-117.11%) in B16F10 melanoma cells without cytotoxicity. In addition, we also found that the anti-melanogenic effect of gamma-irradiated BGE is mediated by the cyclic AMP (cAMP) signaling pathway (MITF and CREB), ERK, and p38 MAPK signaling pathway. Our findings suggest that gamma-irradiated BGE could be a potential anti-melanogenic agent for use in skin-whitening cosmetics. Consequently, gamma irradiation could become an effective tool for developing functional foods and cosmetics.

Renoprotective Effects of Fermented Black Ginseng through Ameliorating Oxidative Stress Associated with Cisplatin-Induced Acute Nephrotoxicity in Mice

We aimed to evaluate the renal protective capacity of Fermented Black Ginseng (FBG) and its mechanism to reduce the cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity. Nephrotoxicity was induced by a single intraperitoneal injection of cisplatin (20 mg/kg) and treated with white ginseng (WB) and FBG (200 mg/kg/day, orally) for 4 days before cisplatin treatment. Biochemical results showed that WG and FBG pretreatment significantly reduced the increase of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine, and histopathological changes were meaningfully ameliorated. Cisplatin increased the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and depletion of Glutathione (GSH) in serum and kidney, whereas, WG or FBG administration markedly down-regulated. Moreover, the expression of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin (IL)-6 was markedly suppressed by both WB and FBG. However, FBG pretreatment was more effective than those of WG in COX-2, iNOS, and IL-6 levels. Moreover, FBG treated mice significantly up-regulated the antioxidative enzymes. In HPLC analysis, the increasing ginsenoside contents that include Rg1, Re, Rb1, Rc, Rb3, Rd, Rg3, Rk1, and Rg5 by heat-processing were greater about 5.7 fold when fermentation additionally. Taken together, FBG may be a worthful candidate for the prevention of nephrotoxicity in patients receiving cisplatin.

Black Snow, Sun, and Red Ginseng Water Extracts Downregulate the Expression of Genes Related to Melanogenesis in Melan-a Cells

A variety of ginseng products are currently available on the market, including black snow ginseng (BSG), sun ginseng (SG), and red ginseng (RG). This study evaluated the effects of Panax ginseng (BSG, SG, RG) water extracts (PGWEs: BSGWE, SGWE, and RGWE, respectively) on melanogenesis-relevant gene expression in melan-a cells. While mRNA expression of tyrosinase, TRP-1, TRP-2, and MITF-M, were not affected by arbutin treatment, concentration-dependent treatment with PGWEs (25~100 μg/mL) reduced their expression. SGWE treatment, in particular, elicited a remarkable reduction of MITF-M mRNA expression. The protein expression of tyrosinase, TRP-1, TRP-2, and MITF, were not affected by arbutin treatment. However, depending upon concentration, treatment with PGWEs (25~100 μg/mL) reduced the expression of tyrosinase, TRP-1, and TRP-2 proteins, relative to control cells. It is noted that treatment with PGWEs (25~100 μg/mL), with the exception of RGWE, did not reduce the expression of MITF protein. These results suggest that the underlying mechanism of PGWE hypopigmentation activity could be based on the inhibition of tyrosinase and tyrosinase-related proteins at the transcription level.

Gamma-irradiated black ginseng extract inhibits mast cell degranulation and suppresses atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions in mice

Gamma irradiation is able to affect various structural modification and an increase of the biological properties of biomaterials. This study was conducted to investigate the anti-allergenic effect of γ-irradiated black ginseng extract (BGE) using in vitro and in vivo experiments. IgEantigen complex-induced degranulation was measured in RBL-2H3 mast cells. In addition, an anti-atopic dermatitis (AD) test was carried out by spreading γ-irradiated BGE on the dorsal skin of 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB)-induced BALB/c mice. The content of arginylfructose (AF) of gamma-irradiated BGE was higher than that of BGE. In RBL-2H3 mast cells, γ-irradiated BGE treatments significantly reduced the IgE-antigen complex-induced release of β-hexosaminidase, histamine, intracellular ROS, and Ca2+ influx. A western blot analysis showed that γ-irradiated BGE had an inhibitory activity on the FcεRI-mediated signaling in mast cells. In the DNCB-induced AD model, γ-irradiated BGE significantly alleviated the ADlike skin symptoms and clinical signs. The suppression of AD by γ-irradiated BGE was accompanied by a decrease in the serum level of IgE and IL-4, as well as the number of leukocyte. Gamma-irradiated BGE also suppressed IL-4 and increased IFN-γ in splenocytes. Our data suggests that γ-irradiated BGE may be effective therapeutic agents for the treatment of AD.

Ameliorative effect of black ginseng extract against oxidative stress-induced cellular damages in mouse hepatocytes

BackgroundOxidative stress induces the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which play important causative roles in various pathological conditions. Black ginseng (BG), a type of steam-processed ginseng, has drawn significant attention due to its biological activity, and is more potent than white ginseng (WG) or red ginseng (RG). MethodsWe evaluated the protective effects of BG extract (BGE) against oxidative stress-induced cellular damage, in comparison with WG extract (WGE) and RG extract (RGE) in a cell culture model. Ethanolic extracts of WG, RG, and BG were used to evaluate ginsenoside profiles, total polyphenols, flavonoid contents, and antioxidant activity. Using AML-12 cells treated with H2O2, the protective effects of WGE, RGE, and BGE on cellular redox status, DNA, protein, lipid damage, and apoptosis levels were investigated. ResultsBGE exhibited significantly enhanced antioxidant potential, as well as total flavonoid and polyphenol contents. ATP levels were significantly higher in BGE-treated cells than in control; ROS generation and glutathione disulfide levels were lower but glutathione (GSH) and NADPH levels were higher in BGE-treated cells than in other groups. Pretreatment with BGE inhibited apoptosis and therefore protected cells from oxidative stress-induced cellular damage, probably through ROS scavenging. ConclusionCollectively, our results demonstrate that BGE protects AML-12 cells from oxidative stress-induced cellular damages more effectively than WGE or RGE, through ROS scavenging, maintenance of redox status, and activation of the antioxidant defense system.

Effect of red and black ginseng on cholinergic markers, presynaptic markers, and neurotrophins in the brain of aged mice.

This study investigated the effects of chronic administration of red ginseng extract (RGE) and black ginseng extract (BGE) on memory impairment in aged (18-month-old) mice. RGE and BGE (200mg/kg) were orally administered for 16weeks. Aging induced DNA damage; however, RGE and BGE protected DNA from damage and allowed for DNA recovery in blood lymphocytes. Choline acetyltransferase, vesicular acetylcholine transporter, growth-associated protein 43, synaptosomal-associated protein 25, nerve growth factor, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor protein expression were significantly increased after treatment with RGE and BGE. These data suggest that chronic administration of red ginseng and black ginseng may decrease the cognitive deficits associated with normal aging.

Caspase-Mediated Anti-Apoptotic Effect of Ginsenoside Rg5, a Main Rare Ginsenoside, on Acetaminophen-Induced Hepatotoxicity in Mice.

Frequent overdose of acetaminophen (APAP) is one of the most common and important incentives of acute hepatotoxicity. Prior to this work, our research group confirmed that black ginseng (Panax ginseng, BG) showed powerful protective effects on APAP-induced ALI. However, it is not clear which kind of individual ginsenoside from BG plays such a liver protection effect. The objective of the current investigation was to evaluate whether ginsenoside Rg5 (G-Rg5) protected against APAP-induced hepatotoxicity and the involved action mechanisms. Mice were administrated with G-Rg5 at two dosages of 10 or 20 mg/kg for 7 consecutive days. After the last treatment, all of the animals that received a single intraperitoneal injection of APAP (250 mg/kg) showed severe liver toxicity after 24 h, and the liver protection effects of G-Rg5 were examined. The results clearly indicated that pretreatment with G-Rg5 remarkably inhibited the production of serum tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) compared with the APAP group. Meanwhile, G-Rg5 decreased the hepatic malondialdehyde (MDA) content, the protein expression levels of 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) and cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) in the liver tissues. G-Rg5 decreased APAP caused the hepatic overexpression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). Furthermore, analysis of immunohistochemistry and Western blotting also indicated that G-Rg5 pretreatment inhibited activation of apoptotic pathways mainly via increasing the expression of Bcl-2 protein, decreasing the expression of Bax protein, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), cytochrome c, caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9. Liver histopathological observation provided further evidence that pretreatment with G-Rg5 could significantly inhibit hepatocyte necrosis, inflammatory cell infiltration, and apoptosis caused by APAP. In conclusion, the present study clearly demonstrates that G-Rg5 exerts a liver protection effect against APAP-induced acute hepatotoxicity mainly via a caspase-mediated anti-apoptotic effect.

Black ginseng activates Akt signaling, thereby enhancing myoblast differentiation and myotube growth

BackgroundBlack ginseng (BG) has greatly enhanced pharmacological activities relative to white or red ginseng. However, the effect and molecular mechanism of BG on muscle growth has not yet been examined. In this study, we investigated whether BG could regulate myoblast differentiation and myotube hypertrophy. MethodsBG-treated C2C12 myoblasts were differentiated, followed by immunoblotting for myogenic regulators, immunostaining for a muscle marker, myosin heavy chain or immunoprecipitation analysis for myogenic transcription factors. ResultsBG treatment of C2C12 cells resulted in the activation of Akt, thereby enhancing heterodimerization of MyoD and E proteins, which in turn promoted muscle-specific gene expression and myoblast differentiation. BG-treated myoblasts formed larger multinucleated myotubes with increased diameter and thickness, accompanied by enhanced Akt/mTOR/p70S6K activation. Furthermore, the BG treatment of human rhabdomyosarcoma cells restored myogenic differentiation. ConclusionBG enhances myoblast differentiation and myotube hypertrophy by activating Akt/mTOR/p70S6k axis. Thus, our study demonstrates that BG has promising potential to treat or prevent muscle loss related to aging or other pathological conditions, such as diabetes.

Comparison of Antioxidant Ability and Whitening Efficacy of Black Snow, Snow, and Red Ginseng Water Extracts

There is a variety of commercial ginseng products currently available in the market, including red ginseng (RG), black snow ginseng (BSG), and sun ginseng (SG). The objective of the study was to evaluate the putative effects of processed Panax ginseng (BSG, SG, RG) water extracts (PGWEs: BSGWE, SGWE, and RGWE, respectively) on antioxidant ability as well as melanin synthesis and tyrosinase activity in melan-a cells. The total polyphenol contents of BSGWE, SGWE, and RGWE were 12.0, 8.3, and 7.7 mg/g, respectively. The total flavonoid contents of BSGWE, SGWE, and RGWE were 16.7, 8.4, and 7.9 mg/g, respectively. The electron donating abilities of BSGWE, SGWE, and RGWE at 1,000 μg/mL were 11.0%, 11.0%, and 8.3%, respectively. The inhibitory effects of BSGWE, SGWE, and RGWE on both melanin synthesis and tyrosinase activity were found to be equivalent or more potent than those of positive control arbutin. These results indicate that PGWEs can be used as functional cosmetic materials for the prevention or alleviation of skin pigmentation.

Effects of fermented black ginseng on wound healing mediated by angiogenesis through the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway in human umbilical vein endothelial cells

BackgroundFermented black ginseng (FBG) is produced through several cycles of steam treatment of raw ginseng, at which point its color turns black. During this process, the original ginsenoside components of raw ginseng (e.g., Re, Rg1, Rb1, Rc, and Rb2) are altered, and less-polar ginsenosides are generated (e.g., Rg3, Rg5, Rk1, and Rh4). The aim of this study was to determine the effect of FBG on wound healing. MethodsThe effects of FBG on tube formation and on scratch wound healing were measured using human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and HaCaT cells, respectively. Protein phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase was evaluated via Western blotting. Finally, the wound-healing effects of FBG were assessed using an experimental cutaneous wounds model in mice. Results and ConclusionThe results showed that FBG enhanced the tube formation in HUVECs and migration in HaCaT cells. Western blot analysis revealed that FBG stimulated the phosphorylation of p38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase in HaCaT cells. Moreover, mice treated with 25 μg/mL of FBG exhibited faster wound closure than the control mice did in the experimental cutaneous wounds model in mice.

Anti-diabetic effect of black ginseng extract by augmentation of AMPK protein activity and upregulation of GLUT2 and GLUT4 expression in db/db mice

BackgroundBlack ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer), three to nine times-steamed and dried ginseng, has biological and pharmacological activities. In this study, the anti-diabetic effects of the black ginseng ethanol extract (GBG05-FF) in typical type 2 diabetic model db/db mice were investigated.MethodsThe effect of GBG05-FF in Type 2 diabetic mice was investigated by their blood analysis, biological mechanism analysis, and histological analysis.ResultsThe mice group treated with GBG05-FF showed decreased fasting blood glucose and glucose tolerance compared to that of the nontreated GBG05-FF group. In the blood analysis, GBG05-FF decreased main plasma parameter such as HbA1c, triglyceride, and total-cholesterol levels related to diabetes and improved the expression of genes and protein related to glucose homeostasis and glucose uptake in the liver and muscle. The histological analysis result shows that GBG05-FF decreased lipid accumulation in the liver and damage in the muscle. Moreover, GBG05-FF increased the phosphorylation of the AMPK in the liver and upregulated the expression of GLUT2 in liver and GLUT4 in muscle. Therefore, the mechanisms of GBG05-FF may be related to suppressing gluconeogenesis by activating AMPK in the liver and affecting glucose uptake in surrounding tissues via the upregulation of GLUT2 and GLUT4 expression.ConclusionThese findings provided a new insight into the anti-diabetic clinical applications of GBG05-FF and it might play an important role in the development of promising functional foods and drugs from the viewpoint of the chemical composition and biological activities.

Chronic dietary ginseng extract administration ameliorates antioxidant and cholinergic systems in the brains of aged mice

BackgroundBlack ginseng has a more potent biological activity than non-steamed ginseng. We investigated the effects of long-term intake of dietary black ginseng extract (BG) on antioxidant activity in aged mice. We also compared the effects of BG on cognitive deficits with those of white ginseng extract (WG) and red ginseng extract (RG). MethodsTen-month-old mice were fed an AIN-93G-based diet containing 10 g/kg (low dose, L) or 30 g/kg (high dose, H) WG powder, RG powder, or BG powder for 24 wk. We measured serum lipids, the activities of antioxidant enzymes, and malondialdehyde levels. Additionally, the protein expression levels of choline acetyltransferase and vesicular acetylcholine transporter, which are presynaptic cholinergic markers in the cortex and hippocampus of the brain, were measured by western blotting. ResultsTriglyceride levels were reduced in all the extract-treated mice, except those in the LBG group. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the HBG group were higher than those in the control group. Total cholesterol levels were reduced in the LBG group. Additionally, glucose levels in the HBG group were significantly reduced by 41.2%. There were lower levels of malondialdehyde in the LBG group than in the control group. Furthermore, glutathione reductase activity increased in the HWG group and the HRG group. The protein expression levels of choline acetyltransferase and vesicular acetylcholine transporter significantly increased in all the ginseng-treated groups. ConclusionThe results suggest that supplementation with the tested ginseng extracts may suppress the cognitive decline associated with aging, via regulation of the cholinergic and antioxidant defense systems.

Ameliorative Effects and Possible Molecular Mechanism of Action of Black Ginseng (Panax ginseng) on Acetaminophen-Mediated Liver Injury.

Background: Frequent overdosing of acetaminophen (APAP) has become the major cause of acute liver injury (ALI). The present study aimed to evaluate the potential hepatoprotective effects of black ginseng (BG) on APAP-induced mice liver injuries and the underlying mechanisms of action were further investigated for the first time. Methods: Mice were treated with BG (300, 600 mg/kg) by oral gavage once a day for seven days. On the 7th day, all mice were treated with 250 mg/kg APAP which caused severe liver injury after 24 h and hepatotoxicity was assessed. Results: Our results showed that pretreatment with BG significantly decreased the levels of serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST) compared with the APAP group. Meanwhile, hepatic antioxidant including glutathione (GSH) was elevated compared with the APAP group. In contrast, a significant decrease of the levels of the lipid peroxidation product malondialdehyde (MDA) was observed in the BG-treated groups compared with the APAP group. These effects were associated with significant increases of cytochrome P450 E1 (CYP2E1) and 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) levels in liver tissues. Moreover, BG supplementation suppressed activation of apoptotic pathways through increasing Bcl-2 and decreasing Bax protein expression levels according to western blotting analysis. Histopathological examination revealed that BG pretreatment significantly inhibited APAP-induced necrosis and inflammatory infiltration in liver tissues. Biological indicators of nitrative stress like 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT) were also inhibited after pretreatment with BG, compared with the APAP group. Conclusions: The results clearly suggest that the underlying molecular mechanisms of action of BG-mediated alleviation of APAP-induced hepatotoxicity may involve its anti-oxidant, anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory and anti-nitrative effects.

Optimal Conditions for Extracting the Ginsenosides Rg3, Rg5, and Rk1 from Black Ginseng

Ginseng is known to contain numerous ginsenosides, which exhibit beneficial health effects. In particular, ginsenoside Rg3, Rg5, and Rk1, derived from high temperature-processed ginseng, have higher bioactivities compared to other types of ginsenosides. In this study, we determined the optimal conditions for extraction of the valuable ginsenosides Rg3, Rg5, and Rk1 from black ginseng. Our results revealed that black ginseng extracted with 100°C distilled water for 0.5 hours and 6 hours yields large amounts of Rg3, Rg5, and Rk1 compared with other extraction times. We also found that protopanaxadiol (PPD) and protopanaxatriol (PPT) were also efficiently extracted from black ginseng with 100 °C distilled water at 0.5 hours and 6 hours and then rapidly degraded in a time-dependent manner. Therefore, we posit that short extraction times such as 0.5 hours and 6 hours might be optimal for isolation of the ginsenosides Rg3, Rg5, and Rk1 from black ginseng as opposed to longer extraction periods.

Anti-adipogenic Effects and Mechanisms of Ginsenoside Rg3 in Pre-adipocytes and Obese Mice.

Red or black ginseng has been reported more powerful than white/fresh ginseng in dealing with various diseases/conditions including obesity. The major reason is that heating/steaming, the process of making red or black ginseng, produces large amount of bioactive compounds including ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3), which are trace in fresh or white ginseng. In the present study, Rg3 was applied both in pre-adipocytes and obese mice to investigate the anti-adipogenic effects and relevant mechanisms. Our results show that Rg3 dose-dependently inhibited cell differentiation both in 3T3-L1 cells (30, 50, and 100 μM) and human primary pre-adipocytes (10, 20, and 30 μM). This inhibitory effect is accompanied by the attenuation of the expressions of adipogenic markers including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ), CCAAT/enhancer binding protein alpha (C/EBP-α), fatty acid synthase (FAS), fatty acid binding protein 4 (FABP4) and perilipin. Although dietary intake of Rg3 (0.1 mg Rg3/kg diet, 8 weeks) did not significantly affect body weight gain, fat pads and food intake as well as of PPAR-γ expression in fat tissues, we found that hepatic PPAR-γ and C/EBP-α protein expressions and hepatic glutathione reductase and glutathione S-transferase, two major antioxidants molecules were significantly reduced by Rg3. These results suggest that ginsenoside Rg3 may be a potential agent in reducing/preventing obesity.

Effects of Red or Black Ginseng Extract in a Rat Model of Inflammatory Temporomandibular Joint Pain

Effects of Red or Black Ginseng Extract in a Rat Model of Inflammatory Temporomandibular Joint Pain

Anti‑wrinkle effect of fermented black ginseng on human fibroblasts.

Fermented black ginseng(FBG) is processed by the repeated steaming and drying of fresh ginseng followed by fermentation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae. It is known to possess anti‑oxidative effects. Skin wrinkle formation is associated with oxidative stress and inflammatory reactions. The aim of this study was to determine whether FBG possesses anti‑wrinkle activity using human fibroblasts(HS68). According to the Korea Ministry of Food and Drug Safety(MFDS) guidelines for the evaluation of the efficacy of functional anti‑wrinkle cosmetics, we attempted to elucidate the effects of FBG on typeI procollagen, matrix metalloproteinase(MMP)‑1, MMP‑2, MMP‑9 and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase‑2(TIMP‑2). In addition, the eye irritation potential of FBG was examined using the EpiOcular‑EIT kit. Our results revealed that FBG was not cytotoxic at concentrations<10µg/ml. It was considered as safe for the eyes at concentrations of up to 100µg/ml. Treatment with FBG at concentrations from 0.3to 10µg/ml significantly(P<0.05) increased the typeI procollagen expression levels from 117.61±1.51 to 129.95±4.47% in the human fibroblasts. By contrast, FBG significantly(P<0.05) decreased the MMP‑1 expression level from 18.41±4.95 to 27.41±3.96%. FBG at 3µg/ml also increased the expression of TIMP‑2 up to154.55%. However, FBG at 10µg/ml decreased the expression levels of MMP‑2 and MMP‑9 to 45.15and66.65%, respectively. These results suggest that FBG has potential anti‑wrinkle effects as a potential ingredient in cosmetics.

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of furosine in fresh and processed ginsengs

BackgroundFurosine (ɛ-N-2-furoylmethyl-L-lysine, FML) is an amino acid derivative, which is considered to be an important indicator of the extent of damage (deteriorating the quality of amino acid and proteins due to a blockage of lysine and a decrease in the digestibility of proteins) during the early stages of the Maillard reaction. In addition, FML has been proven to be harmful because it is closely related to a variety of diseases such as diabetes. The qualitative analysis of FML in fresh and processed ginsengs was confirmed using HPLC-MS. MethodsAn ion-pair reversed-phase LC method was used for the quantitative analysis of FML in various ginseng samples. ResultsThe contents of FML in the ginseng samples were 3.35–42.28 g/kg protein. The lowest value was observed in the freshly collected ginseng samples, and the highest value was found in the black ginseng concentrate. Heat treatment and honey addition significantly increased the FML content from 3.35 g/kg protein to 42.28 g/kg protein. ConclusionThese results indicate that FML is a promising indicator to estimate the heat treatment degree and honey addition level during the manufacture of ginseng products. The FML content is also an important parameter to identity the quality of ginseng products. In addition, the generation and regulation of potentially harmful Maillard reaction products-FML in ginseng processing was also investigated, providing a solid theoretical foundation and valuable reference for safe ginseng processing.

Inhibition of Inflammation by Kyeongok-go with Black ginseng in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 Macrophages

Inhibition of Inflammation by Kyeongok-go with Black ginseng in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 Macrophages