Birds Directive Research Articles

DNA barcoding of bird species in Cyprus: a tool for conservation purposes

SummaryDNA barcoding has become a widely used and valuable tool in taxonomic research during the past three decades and its application is expanding to fields such as wildlife forensics (e.g. anti-poaching actions). One of the major advantages of DNA barcoding is that it allows for species identification from largely incomplete, deformed or cooked samples and even from traces of biological material. Cyprus is a well-known biodiversity hotspot, the island avifauna comprising around 400 species, 117 of which are listed in Annex I of the Birds Directive (2009/147/EC). Each year on average, 2.3 million individuals (mainly small migratory birds) are trapped illegally on the island and often served at restaurants. Consequently, reliable identification of specimens from processed tissues can be crucial for undertaking legal actions. Herein DNA barcoding of the large majority of bird species resident in Cyprus plus several migrants that were illegally captured was carried out to support local authorities in their anti-poaching actions. In this study, tissue from 103 specimens representing 81 bird taxa were sampled and a 648-bp long fragment of the Cytochrome Oxidase subunit Ι (COI) gene was targeted using a combination of standard, nested and semi-nested PCR depending on the condition of the tissue at hand. Sequences were obtained from all investigated samples and a total of 92 haplotypes was recovered. Phylogenetic reconstructions returned a pattern of relationships among taxa largely compatible with known avian phylogeny. Furthermore, diagnostic polymorphisms within the genus including one of the main targeted species,Sylvia atricapilla,were found. In conclusion, an avian genetic dataset is now available for the law enforcement authorities to identify specimens either confiscated (even when morphologically deformed or cooked) during raids in restaurants and in other premises suspected of serving illegally protected bird species or from trappers.

Contrasting seasonal reactions of two sibling woodpeckers to playback stimulation in urban areas — implications for inventory and monitoring of the Syrian woodpecker

The Syrian woodpecker (Dendrocopos syriacus) is the most synanthropic species among European woodpeckers and can be considered to be a synurbic species benefiting from human activity and man-made habitats. Because it is closely related to the common great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major), the interactions between the species should be investigated before conducting any study on the Syrian woodpecker. The aim of this study was to assess, analyse and compare both species reactions to the broadcasting of Syrian woodpecker playbacks throughout the year, in urban areas. The study was conducted in three Polish towns. All sites hosted populations of Syrian and great spotted woodpeckers living sympatrically. Both woodpeckers were observed throughout each year of study and responded to playback. The Syrian woodpecker more willingly responded to playbacks. Especially interesting was that the Syrian woodpecker female participated in territorial activity to a greater degree than males (sex-role reversed species). This is the first woodpecker study that shows a stronger territorial activity in females than males and the first reporting woodpecker reactions to playback stimulation throughout the year. The Syrian woodpecker is a rare and threatened species in Europe (protected under the Birds Directive of the European Union (2009/147/EC) and is considered a keystone species for woods and associated biodiversity in urban areas. Therefore, application of efficient methods for precise recognition of Syrian woodpecker territories (not only breeding ones) on the basis of correct interpretation of its behaviour is crucial for its conservation and urban habitat management.

Predicting the impact of seasonal fluctuations on the potential ecotoxicological risk of multiple contaminants in the River Scheldt discharge into the Western Scheldt estuary

The study site, Land van Saeftinghe, is an area within the Western Scheldt estuary with Special Protection Area (SPA) status for the EU Birds directive. We used a combination of hydrodynamic and water quality monitoring, hydrodynamic and water quality and modeling, ecotoxicity modeling and observations on the ecological status to correlate the water quality to the observed ecological status of the study site.The monitoring and modeling results show that the copper concentrations are elevated above the Maximum Tolerable Concentration (MTR) during the whole year, while zinc and cadmium show a spring peak (>MTR). Other metals, and all the measured organic contaminants where below the MTR.The peak in the three metals during springtime translates into an increase in the ecotoxicity, as expressed by the calculated multi-substance Potentially Affected Fraction (ms-PAF). The ms-PAF peaked at 25% for all organisms, and 30% for benthic invertebrates. The observed ecological status for the study site at the time of monitoring (2000) was Maximum Ecological Potential (MEP). This result seems to be in contradiction with the exceedance of the MTR for three metals during spring time. However the calculated ms-PAF during the spring peak of 25% is deemed acceptable based on current policy, therefore potential ecotoxic stress is within acceptable boundaries. The ms-PAF results therefore do not contradict the MEP status.The evaluation of the ecological status versus the water quality within the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) can be improved by using the calculated ecotoxicity (ms-PAF) instead of the water quality. We propose an additional step for water bodies which are currently ‘at risk’, based on their chemical status. In this additional step, the ms-PAF is calculated for all contaminants in the water phase, not discriminating between priority and non-priority substances. The outcome of this calculation defines if the water body is at risk.

Coverage of vertebrate species distributions by Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas and Special Protection Areas in the European Union

The European Union (EU) has an extensive protected area network, including Special Protection Areas (SPAs) designated under the Birds Directive. Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs) are sites of international significance for birds identified by BirdLife International. Here, we perform EU-wide terrestrial spatial conservation prioritizations to evaluate the coverage of IBAs by SPAs, and the coverage of bird and other vertebrate distributions by IBAs and SPAs. We then investigate the distribution of potential locations for expanding the SPA network that maximize bird species' representation, and the coverage of these locations by IBAs. On average, SPAs cover 23% of the EU-wide distribution of each bird species and 25% of the distributions of amphibians, reptiles and mammals together, while IBAs provide marginally greater coverage. Overall, 76% of terrestrial IBAs in the EU are completely or partially covered by SPAs, and 66% of the IBA network area is covered by SPAs. Our results suggest that SPA designation has been significantly informed by data on the location of IBAs. While IBAs are identified using data on particular bird species of conservation concern, they also tend to have high EU-wide representation of other vertebrates. The designation of new or expanded SPAs covering a relatively small amount of currently unprotected land (particularly in the southern EU) would substantially increase SPA coverage of bird species ranges. Our analysis provides insights on the current contribution that these sites make to conserving vertebrates across the EU, and future possibilities for efficiently expanding the network.

Developing a quantitative index as a pragmatic aid to assessing implementation of European Union Birds Directive site protection measures for individual species

ABSTRACTCapsule: A multi-element index is developed to help support decisions with respect to the establishment and review of national networks of European Union (EU) Special Protection Areas (SPAs).Aims: To develop an index based on biological criteria which can be used to assess the sufficiency of protected area network coverage for national populations of individual bird species.Methods: A Site Provision Index (SPI) was derived from data on species’ national and international distribution, population size, habitat use and site-fidelity. It was tested against the results of past UK policy and independent expert judgement.Results: Index values were calculated for all regularly occurring UK birds for which the EU Birds Directive indicates that SPA provision should be considered. Index values and expert opinion on the percentage of populations of species expected to be found in a national network of protected areas were highly correlated. Indices also strongly correlated with existing provision of SPA protection for populations. Residuals from this regression relationship highlight objectively those species where consideration of further SPA provision may be necessary.Conclusion: The SPI can provide a decision-support tool, through a form of gap analysis, to help identify where there is a significant difference between current protected area provision for a species and the level of provision that might be expected relative to other species with similar distribution and ecology.

De los parques nacionales a la conservación de la biodiversidad

Critical review of the evolution of the legal regime concerning the protection of biodiversity since the accession of Spain to the EEC (1986). The law in force at that moment, the LEPN of 1975, had the support of the Public Administration with competences in forestry, which regarded the LEPN as an instrument to maintain its monopoly in the policy of nature conservation. However, the constitutional commitment on environmental issues, together with the Autonomous Regions’ actions in support of the environmental values in their respective territories, led to the nature conservation legislation of 1989, which had a conservationist approach. Finally, the Community requirements of the Birds Directive (1979) and the Habitats Directive (1992) configured a true general system of protection of biodiversity through the Natura 2000 network. The paper explains the meaning of this network, paying particular attention to the scope of the State obligations and to the problems derived from the late and incomplete transposition of the above mentioned Directives. The main conclusion is the need of a full development of the Natura 2000 network in order to make it the axis around which the Spanish policy of protection of biodiversity should revolve.

Shooting is still a main threat for raptors inhabiting urban and suburban areas of Rome, Italy

Assessing threats and causes of mortality is crucial for understanding the factors driving population dynamics and planning effective conservation actions. Investigating the causes for admission into wildlife rehabilitation centres can contribute to assessing the main threats affecting animal populations inhabiting urban and suburban habitats. After analysing 2367 raptors belonging to 28 species admitted at the LIPU/Bioparco wildlife rehabilitation centre of Rome during 12 years (2000–2011), we found that collisions with man-made structures were the most frequent cause for admission, with shooting the second most frequent cause of admission. However, for Falconiformes, excluding kestrels, shooting was the most common cause for admission (52% of all admissions). Comparing urban with suburban landscapes, we found that the occurrence of birds admitted with evidence of gunshot wounds was higher in the suburban landscape for both Strigiformes and Falconiformes. Considering only the 17 species listed in Annex I to Bird Directive 147/2009/EC, shooting was the most frequent cause of admission and accounted for more than 40% of cases. The high frequency of admissions of raptors due to shooting in urban and suburban Rome shows that persecution of raptors is not restricted to rural areas of Italy.

Pheasant poults – buzzard prey or gamebirds?

Applications for licences to kill buzzards in order to prevent serious damage to the viability of pheasant shoots were regarded by Natural England, the licensing authority, as sufficiently novel to require direction from the Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), the government department responsible for the licensing provisions in the Wildlife & Countryside Act and their implementation in accordance with the EU Birds Directive. Defra declined to issue a specific policy for raptors and instructed Natural England to apply the general policy. The court found that Natural England had not done this but had, in effect, applied a hidden policy to refuse such applications. Natural England’s decision to refuse to grant licences was quashed on the grounds of reliance on an undisclosed policy, taking account unlawfully of public opinion, unreasonableness and failing to deal with the option of licensing live trapping of birds. Ouseley J also found that the case was covered by the Aarhus Convention because it related to an environmental matter. The fact that the case was about a refusal to grant a licence and therefore amounted to a challenge seeking to cause harm was irrelevant.

A review of climate change and the implementation of marine biodiversity legislation in the United Kingdom

Abstract Marine legislation, the key means by which the conservation of marine biodiversity is achieved, has been developing since the 1960s. In recent decades, an increasing focus on ‘holistic’ policy development is evident, compared with earlier ‘piecemeal’ sectoral approaches. Important marine legislative tools being used in the United Kingdom, and internationally, include the designation of marine protected areas and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) with its aim of meeting ‘Good Environmental Status’ (GES) for European seas by 2020. There is growing evidence of climate change impacts on marine biodiversity, which may compromise the effectiveness of any legislation intended to promote sustainable marine resource management. A review of key marine biodiversity legislation relevant to the UK shows climate change was not considered in the drafting of much early legislation. Despite the huge increase in knowledge of climate change impacts in recent decades, legislation is still limited in how it takes these impacts into account. There is scope, however, to account for climate change in implementing much of the legislation through (a) existing references to environmental variability; (b) review cycles; and (c) secondary legislation and complementary policy development. For legislation relating to marine protected areas (e.g. the EC Habitats and Birds Directives), climate change has generally not been considered in the site‐designation process, or for ongoing management, with the exception of the Marine (Scotland) Act. Given that changing environmental conditions (e.g. rising temperatures and ocean acidification) directly affect the habitats and species that sites are designated for, how this legislation is used to protect marine biodiversity in a changing climate requires further consideration. Accounting for climate change impacts on marine biodiversity in the development and implementation of legislation is vital to enable timely, adaptive management responses. Marine modelling can play an important role in informing management decisions. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Determinants of legitimate governance of marine Natura 2000 sites in a post-transition European Union country: A case study of Puck Bay, Poland

This paper analyses the process of the creation of management plans for two marine protected areas in Puck Bay, Poland, belonging to the European Natura 2000 network. The review of documents, observations of public consultations and interviews with stakeholders allowed to identify the limitations of the process in terms of governance and legitimacy. Legitimacy—accountability of decision-makers; transparency and consistency of their decisions; and their consideration for the opinions of stakeholders—is a prerequisite for a wide support for conservation measures. Legitimate governance faces unique challenges in post-transition countries, such as Poland, where citizens tend to mistrust decision-makers and experts, and where the opinions of local citizens and municipalities were often ignored in the past. Because the creation of Natura 2000 sites—required under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives when Poland accessed to the EU—was not participatory, local communities consider these conservation measures as imposed and threatening their economic well-being. The analysis in this paper showed that transparency, consistency and accountability of the decision-making process could improve if the institutional responsibilities did not overlap, and if some key players, including the experts, did not play many, potentially conflicting, roles. The main conclusion is that the process is still based on bureaucratic and formal rules, even though a shift towards a more participative approach has started. Completing this shift will require replacing the participation rhetoric with participation practice, together with evidence-based decision making, and embracing openness and public debate on uncertainty.

A Theoretical Approach to Estimating Bird Risk of Collision with Wind Turbines Where Empirical Flight Activity Data Are Lacking

There are standard procedures for collecting data on numbers of birds at sites being proposed for wind farm development and evaluating collision risk for each key species. However, methods do not work well for all species. Where a local bird population is depleted, empirical data cannot provide estimates of likely collision mortality numbers if that population returns to satisfactory conservation status. Field survey methods are also inadequate for cryptic bird species. Both these problems can be important for evaluation of impacts of proposed wind farms on bird populations protected by the EU Birds Directive. We present an alternative method, based on energy constrained activity budgets and natural history, which permits assessment of likely collision numbers where empirical data are inadequate. Two case studies are presented where this approach has been successfully used to resolve disputed planning applications, one for a hen harrier population where numbers present are much below the population size at designation, and one for a cryptic species (greenshank). Our novel method helps reduce uncertainty in assessments constrained by difficulties in collecting suitable empirical data.

Heavy metal concentration in feathers of Little Egret (Egretta garzetta) nestlings in three coastal breeding colonies in Spain.

The colonial ardeid Little Egret (Egretta garzetta), which is is protected under the European Birds Directive (2009/147/EC), can be a reliable bioindicator of aquatic environmental pollution. Concentrations of the heavy metals Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn in nestling feathers were assessed for three different breeding colonies of Little Egret on the Spanish coast during 2013 (5 individuals in Urdaibai, 10 in Santoña and 26 in Odiel). There were no significant differences in mean tissue residues of Cd, Ni, Pb and Zn between the colonies; however, mean concentration of Hg in Odiel nestlings was approximately three times lower than that of the other colonies, while Cr and Cu were significantly higher. In general, Little Egret nestlings from the three study sites had low levels of most of the measured metals, and thus the breeding populations did not appear to be at risk from heavy metal pollution. Baseline metal concentration in feathers derived from this study and calculated as the 90th percentile values were: 0.02 μg Cd g(−1) dw, 0.42 μg Cr g(−1) dw, 1.63 μg Hg g(−1) dw, 0.40 μg Pb g(−1) dw and 122 μg Zn g(−1) dw. However, mean Cu residues attained relatively high levels (17.6–26.9 μg Cu g(−1) dw) compared with data reported elsewhere, which raises concern and indicates a need for further research.

Predicting the future effectiveness of protected areas for bird conservation in Mediterranean ecosystems under climate change and novel fire regime scenarios

AbstractAimGlobal environmental changes challenge traditional conservation approaches based on the selection of static protected areas due to their limited ability to deal with the dynamic nature of driving forces relevant to biodiversity. The Natura 2000 network (N2000) constitutes a major milestone in biodiversity conservation in Europe, but the degree to which this static network will be able to reach its long‐term conservation objectives raises concern. We assessed the changes in the effectiveness of N2000 in a Mediterranean ecosystem between 2000 and 2050 under different combinations of climate and land cover change scenarios.LocationCatalonia, Spain.MethodsPotential distribution changes of several terrestrial bird species of conservation interest included in the European Union's Birds Directive were predicted within an ensemble‐forecasting framework that hierarchically integrated climate change and land cover change scenarios. Land cover changes were simulated using a spatially explicit fire‐succession model that integrates fire management strategies and vegetation encroachment after the abandonment of cultivated areas as the main drivers of landscape dynamics in Mediterranean ecosystems.ResultsOur results suggest that the amount of suitable habitats for the target species will strongly decrease both inside and outside N2000. However, the effectiveness of N2000 is expected to increase in the next decades because the amount of suitable habitats is predicted to decrease less inside than outside this network.Main conclusionsSuch predictions shed light on the key role that the current N2000 may play in the near future and emphasize the need for an integrative conservation perspective wherein agricultural, forest and fire management policies should be considered to effectively preserve key habitats for threatened birds in fire‐prone, highly dynamic Mediterranean ecosystems. Results also show the importance of considering landscape dynamics and the synergies between different driving forces when assessing the long‐term effectiveness of protected areas for biodiversity conservation.

Ministerial Duties under the Wild Birds Directive and Judicial Review

Ministerial Duties under the Wild Birds Directive and Judicial Review

Assessing the Performance of EU Nature Legislation in Protecting Target Bird Species in an Era of Climate Change

AbstractInternational legislation forms a cornerstone of conservation, yet its efficacy is rarely quantified. We assess whether species listed on Annex I of the European Union (EU) Birds Directive, for which EU Member States are obliged to implement special conservation measures, differ systematically in their short‐term (2001‐2012) or long‐term (1980‐2012) population trends from those of non‐Annex I species. In both periods, Annex I species had more positive trends than non‐Annex I species, particularly in countries that joined the EU earlier. There were additional signatures of climate change and life history strategy in the trends of species in one or both periods. Within Annex I species, long‐distance migrants fared significantly worse than other species, suggesting that enhanced protection on the breeding grounds alone may be insufficient for these species. We conclude that the EU's conservation legislation has had a demonstrably positive impact on target species, even during a period in which climate change has significantly affected populations.

On how much biodiversity is covered in Europe by national protected areas and by the Natura 2000 network: insights from terrestrial vertebrates.

The European Union has made extensive biodiversity conservation efforts with the Habitats and Birds Directives and with the establishment of the Natura 2000 network of protected areas, one of the largest networks of conservation areas worldwide. We performed a gap analysis of the entire Natura 2000 system plus national protected areas and all terrestrial vertebrates (freshwater fish excluded). We also evaluated the level of connectivity of both systems, providing therefore a first estimate of the functionality of the Natura 2000 system as an effective network of protected areas. Together national protected areas and the Natura 2000 network covered more than one-third of the European Union. National protected areas did not offer protection to 13 total gap species (i.e., species not covered by any protected area) or to almost 300 partial gap species (i.e., species whose representation target is not met). Together the Natura 2000 network and national protected areas left 1 total gap species and 121 partial gap species unprotected. The terrestrial vertebrates listed in the Habitats and Birds Directives were relatively well covered (especially birds), and overall connectivity was improved considerably by Natura 2000 sites that act as stepping stones between national protected areas. Overall, we found that the Natura 2000 network represents at continental level an important network of protected areas that acts as a good complement to existing national protected areas. However, a number of problems remain that are mainly linked to the criteria used to list the species in the Habitats and Birds Directives. The European Commission initiated in 2014 a process aimed at assessing the importance of the Birds and Habitats Directives for biodiversity conservation. Our results contribute to this assessment and suggest the system is largely effective for terrestrial vertebrates but would benefit from further updating of the species lists and field management.

Is research effort associated with the conservation status of European bird species?

Research effort is critical to the success of interventions which aim to reduce de clines in biodiversity and so can be considered as a conservation resource. European bird species are among the best studied and most popular groups of animals, yet 1 in 10 are currently globally threatened or near threatened, and many have been prioritised by various multilateral environmental agreements. To investigate how research effort is directed towards European bird species, and in particular whether conservation listing prompts additional research, the number of outputs from a Web of Science search related to conservation was used to develop an index of research effort for each species. This index was then analysed against a set of population, morphological, ecological and socioeconomic parameters collated from the literature, plus measures of threat level. A series of generalised linear models revealed that the most important factors in explaining the distribution of research effort amongst European bird species included ‘European population size’, ‘potential research investment’ and ‘habitat type’, which were linked to ease of study. Also important were the species’ generation length, 1990−2000 European population trend and migration status. Research effort was not well targeted with respect to either European or global threat status, and there was little support for the suggestion that inclusion of species in legislative instruments such as Annex I of the EU Birds Directive might stimulate research. Research effort must become better prioritised to achieve the greatest net conservation benefit.

Natura 2000 – Solution for Eastern Europe or just a good start? The Šumava National Park as a test case

Natura 2000 is a unique EU-wide network of protected areas, which aims to maintain European biodiversity or at least prevent its worsening based on two Directives: Bird Directive 79/409/EEC and Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC. It is assumed that this will assure the long-term survival of Europe’s most valuable and threatened species and habitats. The new member states implemented the Natura 2000 Directives in their own legislation as a part of the EU-integration process. Here we present the practical difficulties of implementing these directives in the Czech Republic as a warning of the problems likely to be encountered in post-communist countries. Our results are mainly based on a case study of the Šumava National Park. We analyze, why Natura 2000 may not work here and look for possible solutions, which would require changes in Natura 2000 policies and their implementation in national policies. We show five examples of activities, which were performed or are still planned despite the fact that Natura 2000 evaluations have clearly shown that they have or would have had significant negative effects on Natura 2000 habitats and species. These include canoeing in pearl mussels core zones, logging of spruce stands, park zonation and management, and ski lift and tourist trails in capercaillie core zones. We deduce that the unstable political conditions together with the weak position of the state representatives in the Czech Republic result in a situation in which the last remnants of justice together with newly implemented EU directives easily disappear. We then show that the problems encountered in implementing Natura 2000 directives in the Czech Republic are likely to affect their successful implementation in most other post-communist countries. EU is supporting these countries financially, but this support should be much more conditional on full implementation of EU laws. Environmental subsidies should be conditional on fulfilment of the country’s obligations to EU nature protection. Proper use of EU money should be directly controlled by central EU authorities, not left entirely to the recipients, the member states.

Breeding avifauna of the Special Protection Area Natura 2000 ‘Grądy Odrzańskie’ in Czernica and Siechnice counties, Wrocław district (Poland)

Abstract In 2009, in the Special Protection Area Natura 2000 ‘Grądy Odrzańskie’ in Czernica and Siechnice counties, Wrocław district, 95 breeding bird species were recorded. For 33 of them, maps of distribution of their breeding pairs are presented and for the remaining a relative abundance was estimated based on line transect method. In 2009, the following species were recorded in the study area for the first time: Cygnus olor, Crex crex, Upupa epops, and Picus canus. On the other hand, 11 species recorded in 1978-87 as breeding in the study area (Ciconia nigra, Pernis apivorus, Milvus migrans, Milvus milvus, Falco tinnunculus, Gallinago gallinago, Limosa limosa, Tringa totanus, Riparia riparia, Anthus campestris, Phoenicurus phoenicurus) were not recorded again in 2009. It has been shown that Saxicola torquata, Ficedula albicollis, Corvus corax and Remiz pendulinus have increased in numbers. The following species recorded in 2009 as breeding in the the study area: Cygnus olr, Ciconia ciconia, Circus aeruginosus, Crex crex, Alcedo atthis, Dryocopus martius, Picus canus, Dendrocopos medius, Lulula arborea, Sylvia nisoria, Ficedula albicollis, Lanius collurio and Emberiza hortulana are included in Annex 1 of the Bird Directive.

The Borki Primeval Forest as an important forest bird area

Abstract This paper presents an overview of bird research carried out in the Borki Primeval Forest during the last 30 years. The Borki Primeval Forest can be considered as one of the most important forest bird sites in Poland. Its avifauna comprises 139 breeding species, including 11 rare and endangered species listed in the Polish Red Data Book of Animals as well as 30 species listed in Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. Despite its relatively small area, the Borki Primeval Forest holds at least 1% of Polish breeding population of as many as 12 bird species. For seven out of these species it is one of the most important breeding sites in the country. The avifauna of the Borki Primeval Forest consists mostly of typical forest birds including 24 indicator species which are associated with natural forests. The richness of bird species in the Borki Primeval Forest and the abundance of several valuable groups of breeding species are the result of a high landscape and habitat diversity as well as a relatively small anthropopression combined with a high degree of naturalness of forest stands.