Birds Directive Research Articles

Black Stork Down: Military Discourses in Bird Conservation in Malta

Tensions between Maltese hunters and bird conservation NGOs have intensified over the past decade. Conservation NGOs have become frustrated with the Maltese State for conceding to the hunter lobby and negotiating derogations from the European Union’s Bird Directive. Some NGOs have recently started to organize complex field-operations where volunteers are trained to patrol the landscape, operate drones and other surveillance technologies, detect illegalities, and lead police teams to arrest poachers. We describe the sophisticated military metaphors which conservation NGOs have developed to describe, guide and legitimize their efforts to the Maltese public and their fee-paying members. We also discuss why such groups might be inclined to adopt these metaphors. Finally, we suggest that anthropological studies of discourse could help understand delicate contexts such as this where conservation NGOs, hunting associations and the State have ended in political deadlock.

Climate‐driven changes in winter abundance of a migratory waterbird in relation to EU protected areas

AbstractAimSpecies are responding to climate change by changing their distributions, creating debate about the effectiveness of existing networks of protected areas. As a contribution to this debate, we assess whether regional winter abundances and distribution of the SmewMergellus albellus, a migratory waterbird species listed on Annex I (EUBirds Directive) that overwinters exclusively in European wetlands, changed during 1990–2011, the role of global warming in driving distributional changes and the effectiveness of the network of Special Protection Areas (SPAs,EUBirds Directive) in the context of climate change.LocationEurope.MethodsWe used site‐specific counts (6,883 sites) from 16 countries covering the entire flyway to estimate annual abundance indices and trends at country, region (north‐eastern, central and south‐western) and flyway scales, inside and outsideSPAs. We fitted autoregressive models to assess the effect of winter temperature on the annual abundance indices whilst accounting for autocorrelation.ResultsThe Smew wintering distribution shifted north‐eastwards in Europe in accordance with the predictions of global warming, with increasing numbers in the north‐eastern region and declines in the central region. Trends in wintering numbers were more positive inSPAs on the north‐eastern and south‐western part of the flyway. However, a large proportion of the wintering population remains unprotected in north‐eastern areas outside of the existingSPAnetwork.Main conclusionsSPAs accommodated climate‐driven abundance changes in the north‐eastern region of the wintering distribution by supporting increasing numbers of Smew in traditional and newly colonized areas. However, we highlight gaps in the current network, suggesting that urgent policy responses are needed. Given rapid changes in species distributions, we urge regular national and international assessments of the adequacy of theEUNatura 2000 network to ensure coherence in site‐safeguard networks for this and other species.

Sustaining Europe’s seas as coupled social-ecological systems

Mee, L., P. Cooper, A. Kannen, A. J. Gilbert, and T. O'Higgins. 2015. Sustaining Europe’s seas as coupled social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society 20(1): 1. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-07143-200101

Skjern River Valley, Northern Europe’s most expensive wetland restoration project: benefits to breeding waterbirds

After circa 35 years of drainage and intensive arable tillage, the lower Skjern River, Den-mark was re-engineered to its original meanders and flooding regime, creating 22 km 2 of lakes, shallow wetlands and seasonally flooded grazed wet grassland costing €38 million. The primary motivation was to restore the sediment/nutrient retention capacity of the river valley to reduce eutrophication of Ringkøbing Fjord at its efflux. Secondary objectives were to (i) restore breeding and staging bird habitat, (ii) enhance the self-sustaining Atlantic Salmon Salmo salar population and (iii) improve recreational and tourist activities. Despite lack of specific success criteria, breeding waterbird numbers increased from 134 ± 22.9 SE (n = 3) pairs before to 1,744 ± 153 SE (n = 5) after restoration (although on average 1,004 of these were Black-headed Gulls Chroicocephalus ridibundus), species richness and diversity also increased. Twenty-nine waterbird species returned to breed, 10 of national or international significance (Danish Red List/European Union Birds Directive Annex 1 species) now ranking Skjern River amongst the top 10 most important breeding waterbird sites in Denmark. Currently, agriculture supports cost-neutral management of the restoration area, but whilst most expected wet meadow and marsh species had returned, lack of goal-orientated management targets resulted in some additional rare and threatened species remaining absent. Breeding pair density and diversity of other species could have been greatly improved by prior planning and management intervention but at additional cost.

35 Years of the eu Birds Directive in the Light of the Court Practice of the European Court of Justice and the German Federal Administrative Court

35 Years of the eu Birds Directive in the Light of the Court Practice of the European Court of Justice and the German Federal Administrative Court

The effects of road networks and habitat heterogeneity on the species richness of birds in Natura 2000 sites in Cyprus

The large European supra-national network of protected areas, known as Natura 2000, is considered to be the cornerstone of the European Union's efforts to conserve its biodiversity. The effective management of these areas requires a good understanding of how human-induced ecosystem change, evident in these sites, affects habitats and species of interest. In this study, we examine the factors that influence the presence of birds in thirty-eight Natura 2000 sites in Cyprus. Using structural equation modeling (SEM), we test the direct and indirect effects of human population density, road networks and hunting on the overall species richness of birds and the species richness of four additional bird categories: (1) forest and shrubland species, (2) farmland species, (3) wetland species and (4) species listed in the Annex I of the Birds Directive (2009/147/EC). Other potentially important factors such as size of the area, habitat diversity, percentage of the area covered by migratory corridors and mean altitude, are also incorporated into the analyses. Our results show that road networks have negative effects on four of the five bird categories tested while area and habitat diversity positively influence all categories. These findings have significant conservation implications for the management of the Natura 2000 sites in the EU.

Impact of land use on populations of Vertigo moulinsiana (Dupuy, 1849) and Vertigo angustior (Jeffreys, 1830) (Gastropoda: Pulmonata: Vertiginidae): Ilanka River Valley (W. Poland)

Many sedge meadows in western Poland provide suitable habitats for Vertigo angustior Jeffreys and Vertigo moulinsiana (Dupuy) which are regarded as threatened across Europe. Such habitats are often subject to conservation measures aimed at supporting wetland birds in accordance with the European Birds Directive. Such measures, usually involving extensive mowing, may not favour the vertiginids. Both species are protected by another European act – The Habitats Directive. The range of methods used for maintaining the bird habitats is wide: the sites are mowed manually or mechanically in different ways, and the mowing covers the entire site or just selected patches. The aim of this study was to check how the different maintenance methods influenced the vertiginid populations. The abundance of V. angustior and V. moulinsiana was studied at 17 sampling sites along the Ilanka river valley (Lubuskie Province, W. Poland). The sites differed in size, moisture level, vegetation, type of land use and shadiness. The results suggest that extensive land management can be advantageous for both species only when the site is divided in patches which are mowed alternately in consecutive years.

Management conflicts in the Vistula Lagoon area

The Vistula Lagoon is a transboundary water body, shared by Poland, an EU member state, and Russia. This fact hampers effective management of waters with respect to navigation, water quality, fisheries and tourism.The current state of communities living by the Vistula Lagoon is rather difficult. Economy of the southern part of the lagoon has been suffering persisting unemployment, the northern part performs better but not by using the lagoon but due to attractive Baltic Sea beaches along the Vistula Lagoon Spit, that draw numerous tourists during the summer season. Next, the entire Polish part of the Vistula Lagoon is under NATURA 2000 and Birds Directive. This poses great problems to fishermen and potential spatial development investors. Many investments are stopped or hampered by NATURA 2000 restrictions. Also, fishermen lose their fishing potential on behalf of very large population of cormorants who can eat more fish than fishermen catch. Laws and regulations are not adjusted to the existing situation and lead to overuse of fish stocks or destruction of fish spawning areas.Given the transboundary dimension of the Vistula Lagoon it became a case study for investigations of the FP7 LAGOONS project. It includes a socio-economic workpackage, aimed at identification of management problems raised by various stakeholders and end-users of the lagoon. For this purpose a series of interviews was carried out with representatives of local communities living and working on the Polish side of the Vistula Lagoon. The purpose of those interviews was to identify problems and conflicts concerning local environment, management of the area and legislation from the perspective of ‘ordinary’ people. Unfortunately, similar interviews on the Russian side of the lagoon were not executed, due to general financial constraints faced by non-EU partners participating in the FP7 EU program project.The respondents highlighted several key problems that prevent prosperity and sustainability of the lagoon and add to persisting relative poverty of the region. Primarily, they pointed out to bad quality of water in the lagoon, despite recent improvements in terms of erection of many new waste water treatment plants. Then, they indicated poor touristic and harbor infrastructure on both the northern and southern parts of the lagoon. Next, they signaled bureaucratic difficulties related to ecological restrictions imposed by NATURA 2000 requirements. This included the strain on the fishing sector by very large colony of cormorants. Finally, they discussed the problem of free navigation and access to the lagoon by Polish and non-Russian vessels. Nevertheless, the respondents believe that the lagoon possesses high economic potential, which must be harnessed to begin region's economic recovery and first steps toward sustainable development.

Mitigation and Compensation under EU Nature Conservation Law in the Flemish Region: Beyond the Deadlock for Development Projects?

For years, the predicament of many of the European protected habitats and species in the Flemish Region, as in many other Member States, passed relatively unnoticed. The lack of proper rules and clear implementation rules fuelled the impression amongst project developers and planning authorities that the impacts of project developments on biodiversity did not really warrant closer assessment. However, in the past ten years, strict national case law has significantly altered this view. Faced with tighter judicial scrutiny, the Habitats and Birds Directives were seen as an important obstacle to project development. Hence mitigation and compensation have now come up as novel approaches to better align spatial aspirations with the conservation of nature. In reality, mitigation was often used as a cover-up for projects that would not fit the strict requirements enshrined in the derogatory clauses. Interestingly, the Belgian Council of State showed itself quite cautious in reasserting the lax view of some planning authorities on mitigation and compensation. In reviewing the legality of several new approaches to mitigation and compensation, the Belgian Council of State, which was initially very cautious in quashing decisions that would actually jeopardise major infrastructure developments, has rendered some compelling rulings on the specific application of mitigation and compensatory measures in a spatial planning context. By letting the objectives of EU nature conservation law prevail in the face of economic interests, the recent case law of the Belgian Council of State can be seen as a remarkable example of judicial environmental activism.

Rhodeus Sericeus Amarus Bloch, 1782; Monitoring Elements in the New Natura 2000 Context in Croatia

Abstract The action framework at the European Union level for the conservation of biodiversity was set up based on the Birds Directive (79/409/EEC) and Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). One principal element of the implementation of these two significant Directives in Croatia is the set up of a Natura 2000 network of protected areas, a network which should be based on a specific monitoring plan at Croatian national level for each species which is considered of community interest. In this general context, this study suggests a set of monitoring elements for Rhodeus sericeus amarus for the Croatian Continental Biogeographical Region. The suggestions are based on eight selected criteria: Croatian national borders proximity sectors overlay; very good quality populations of Rhodeus sericeus amarus in terms of population density and structure (e.g. protected areas) in characteristic good habitats; habitats which need ecological reconstruction to allow this fish species populations structure ameliorate or natural repopulation; key sectors with importance for connectivity (e.g. lotic sectors between different important sectors, rivers confluence areas, etc.); sectors influenced by human impact like: industrial pollution point sources, sectors influenced by agricultural diffuse sources of pollution, sectors influenced by habitats modifications (watercourses remodeling, watercourses regulation, etc.), geographically extreme monitoring sections in the most-upstream and mostdownstream sections of the rivers, in this species range and in the near outer proximities of these extremes

When governments support poaching: a review of the illegal trapping of thrushesTurdusspp. in theparanyof Comunidad Valenciana, Spain

SummaryTheparanyis a device used in Comunidad Valenciana (Spain) for trapping birds by the use of limed sticks. Between 1988 and 2001 successive Comunidad Valenciana governments authorised the legal trapping of thrushesTurdusspp. in 5,000paranyeach year. Approximately 1.5 million thrushes (mostly Song ThrushTurdus philomelosand RedwingT. iliacus) along with half a million birds of many protected species (including raptors) were trapped annually. Authorisation ceased in 2001 but illegal trapping still occurs, using at least 2,000parany. Comunidad Valenciana governments have explicitly supported bird trapping on both legal and technical grounds claiming that only small numbers of thrushes are caught and that other species are unaffected, thus complying with the EU Birds Directive. Such assertions have never been proven, and regional, national and international courts have declared that theparanycontravenes nature protection laws. Comunidad Valenciana governments have deliberately overlooked such judgements. It is concluded that eradication ofparanythrough law enforcement and educational schemes would be the best option. Nevertheless, according to the EU Birds Directive, controlled bird trapping would be feasible, and the requisites for such a strategy are discussed. The main obstacle to both eradication and strictly controlled use ofparanyis the lack of political will by Comunidad Valenciana governments.

Forecasting future drowning of coastal waterbird habitats reveals a major conservation concern

Climate change-induced rising sea levels are expected to affect coastal habitats worldwide, and the associated coastal squeeze in protected coastal areas might significantly alter availability of coastal habitats. This study combines coastal bathymetry and elevation models to develop a continuous topographic model covering coastal areas on a large geographical scale, and predicts the areal change in five habitats important to numerous breeding and migrating birds. Our model indicates considerable declines in coastal habitats as a result of coastal squeeze, and reveals major conservation concerns regarding future preservation of essential waterbird habitats. In our study area this will directly influence seven species of herbivorous waterbirds occurring at internationally important numbers, and a total of 41 species of coastal birds protected under the EU Birds Directive, many of which are currently designated as having an unfavourable conservation status. Declines in coastal habitats will also affect invertebrates and fish, and through effects on food webs have an even wider ecological implication. These findings highlight the need of focused coastal management, and illustrate the cost of uncritically protecting human agricultural interests while preventing natural dynamics of the coastal zone. Our analysis indicate that pulling down existing sea walls will reduce the loss by 37–65% dependent on habitat type, but that complete compensation is unlikely in our study area due to local topography. Managed retreat of coastlines might be an efficient solution to counteract the effects of coastal squeeze, but the time and interests associated with implementation of such mitigation measures imply that the time for action is now.

EU自然保護・生物多様性政策における共通ルール発展の阻害

The European Union (EU) has been proactive in environmental protection and conservation within and outside Europe. However, among various policy realms, the most severe non-compliance by the EU member states exists in the realm of environmental protection and conservation. In this policy realm, nature protection and biodiversity conservation constitute the largest portion of non-compliance by the member states. In addition, in this policy area, development of common rules entailing transfer of member states competence has been obstructed continuously. This phenomenon contradicts with an existing potent theoretical account that stresses the importance of the demand for a single common rule at the EU level from non-state actors, and autonomous activities of EU supranational organizations seeking to attain transfer of member states competence at the EU level. The theory emphasizes that this collaboration between non-state actors and supranational organization will activate both negative and positive integration in a sustained fashion. Yet it focuses primarily on the cases of negative integration, including deregulation and market liberalization. Although we can observe that apparently quite similar factors have worked in the case of EU nature and biodiversity policy, this policy area has not experienced transfer of member states competence. This article addresses why and how this has happened and provides implications contributing to theorization of positive integration. This article traces initiation, adoption, implementation, and enforcement processes of the 1979 Birds Directive and the 1992 Habitats Directive, the common rules constituting the core of EU nature and biodiversity policy. The analysis of these two directives reveals the limitations of the existing theoretical framework primarily concerned with negative integration. Although the Birds and Habitats Directives were both initiated by supranational organizations in response to the strong pressures from citizens and environmental organizations, due to the distributional conflicts among the member states, the Commission was unable to play a role as policy entrepreneur. Again, responding to the demand from environmental organizations, supranational organizations, especially the European Court of Justice, enforced the Birds and Habitats Directives against the member states from the perspective of strict environmental protection. Yet this aroused oppositions from the member states and led to the revision of the common rules on nature and biodiversity, thus hindering transfer of member states competence. This strict enforcement has reinforced the confrontation between environmental interests represented by environmental organizations and supranational organizations, and economic interests supported by the member states and firms, thus further obstructing transfer of member states competence.

The costs and socio-economic benefits associated with the Natura 2000 network

The EU’s Habitats and Birds Directives form the basis of efforts to conserve Europe’s biodiversity, with the implementation of a network of protected areas – Natura 2000 – lying at their heart. Implementation of Natura 2000 involves substantial capital investment and requires resources for on-going management and monitoring activities. The network can also deliver a variety of socio-economic benefits, resulting from a range of provisioning, regulating and cultural services, each of which supports human well being. While there is still a lack of quantitative and monetary data for the socio-economic benefits associated with Natura 2000, there is evidence that the benefits to society are larger than the costs of managing and investing in the network. This paper reviews evidence of the costs and benefits of Natura 2000 and makes the proposals regarding future work that would improve understanding of these at a local, regional, national and EU level.

Population trends in boreal birds: Continuing declines in agricultural, northern, and long-distance migrant species

When many environmental changes take place simultaneously, one of the first challenges for conservation efforts is to identify the species and environments that are in the most need of conservation measures. We studied whether there are differences in the population growth trends of 94 boreal bird species according to their migration strategies, breeding distributions (northern or southern), or breeding habitats. To this end, we examined recent trends in bird census data covering >1000km along a north–south transect in Finland, from the deciduous forests on the southern coast through the boreal taiga forest to the alpine fell area in the north. Our results show that long-distance migrants (species wintering in western or eastern Africa or Asia), northern species, and species living in agricultural environments are in decline in north-eastern Europe. The results were the same for both the long-term (27years; 1986–2012) and the short-term (12years, the most recent reporting period of the EU bird directive; 2001–2012) data set. Additionally, species breeding mainly in urban/sub-urban environments, coniferous forests, or wetlands showed negative growth trends, especially over the short-term. These results provide updated information that can be used to determine the targets of conservation efforts focused on Northern Palaearctic birds. Several different conservation measures may be needed to help these populations, ranging from protecting habitat in the migration and wintering grounds to changing climate and agricultural policies at a national and/or international level. In addition, further research is needed to identify the particular mechanisms underlying the population trends.

Effects of habitat quality and hiking trails on the occurrence of Black Grouse (Tetrao tetrix L.) at the northern fringe of alpine distribution in Austria

The Black Grouse (Tetrao tetrix L.), listed in Annex 1 of the European Bird Directive, inhabits the vulnerable alpine treeline ecotone. Reacting sensitively to modifications of the environment, it can be regarded as an indicator species. To assess summer habitat use, we measured habitat parameters and recorded faeces (intestinal droppings) of Black Grouse on a mountain chain of the Northern Limestone Alps at the northern fringe of its distribution. In the area, the existing hiking trails are frequently used by hikers in summer. We modelled summer habitat use and included effects of hiking trails testing three different buffer radii around hiking trails (i.e., 50, 100 and 150 m); the buffer radius of 50 m significantly contributed to the final model of habitat use. Altitude, cover of grasses/herbs, canopy cover of woody plants <5 m, canopy cover of woody plants ≥5 m, grazing intensity, and the interaction term cover of grasses/herbs × canopy cover of woody plants ≥5 m combined with presence–absence of hiking trails best predicted the occurrence of Black Grouse. Our calculations yielded lower probabilities of Black Grouse occurrence areas adjacent to hiking trails (odds of presence reduced by 93 %). Terrestrial mapping of indirect signs and the statistical model were appropriate to depict significant differences of probabilities of occurrence within and outside the buffer zone around hiking trails. Considering the habitat variables in the model, enhancing small-scale habitat heterogeneity seems to be a recommendable habitat management strategy; by creating a fine mosaic of higher woody plants, dwarf shrubs and open, grassy habitat patches, a rich supply of food and cover can be provided within short distances.

Offsets and Conservation of the Species of the EU Habitats and Birds Directives

Biodiversity offsets are intended to achieve no net loss of biodiversity due to economic and human development. A variety of biodiversity components are addressed by offset policies. It is required that loss of protected species due to development be offset under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives in Europe. We call this type of offset a species-equality offset because the offset pertains to the same species affected by the development project. Whether species equality can be achieved by offset design is unknown. We addressed this gap by reviewing derogation files (i.e., specific files that describe mitigation measures to ensure no net loss under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives) from 85 development projects in France (2009-2010). We collected information on type of effect (reversible vs. irreversible) and characteristics of affected and offset sites (i.e., types of species, total area). We analyzed how the type of effect and the affected-site characteristics influenced the occurrence of offset measures. The proportion of species targeted by offset measures (i.e., offset species) increased with the irreversibility of the effect of development and the conservation status of the species affected by development (i.e., affected species). Not all effects on endangered species (International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List) were offset; on average, 82% of affected species would be offset. Twenty-six percent of species of least concern were offset species. Thirty-five percent of development projects considered all affected species in their offset measures. Species richness was much lower in offset sites than in developed sites even after offset proposals. For developed areas where species richness was relatively high before development, species richness at offset sites was 5-10 times lower. The species-equality principle appears to have been applied only partially in offset policies, as in the EU directives. We suggest the application of this principle through offsets is highly important for the long-term conservation of biodiversity in Europe. Compensaciones y Conservación de las Especies de las Directivas de Hábitats y Aves de la UE.

Considerable environmental bottlenecks for species listed in the Habitats and Birds Directives in the Netherlands

Many habitats and species have their existence threatened, especially in densely populated areas such as Western Europe. To stop the decline of biodiversity, the Natura 2000 network is being set-up. The ultimate objective is to get all habitat types (of Annex I of the Habitats Directive) and species (of Annexes II, III and IV of the Habitats Directive and Annex I of the Birds Directive) in a favourable conservation status. In the Netherlands a national ecological network has been set up for this purpose which includes the designated Natura 2000 sites. The current amount of atmospheric nitrogen deposition, acidification and desiccation were compared with limit values per habitat type for nitrogen deposition load, soil pH and spring groundwater table respectively and subsequently presented together in one map. Fragmentation was tested for 80 species.For two-third of the examined natural surface the critical load for nitrogen deposition is exceeded, desiccation is present in over 90% of the area of groundwater dependent nature. Problems with acidification are less pronounced. Fragmentation is present causing regional problems for up to six species. When the four pressures are combined, about two third of the areas suffer from at least one pressure. Many areas suffer from a combination of nitrogen deposition and desiccation.We conclude that environmental and spatial conditions are insufficient to meet the biodiversity target set by the European Union for the Natura 2000 network, habitat types and species.

The Comparative Analysis of Pressures and Threats to The Natura 2000 Sites for Wild Birds Protection - Case Studies in Wetlands in Romania and Bulgaria

ABSTRACT The Natura 2000 concept and wetlands protection are relatively new for Romania and Bulgaria, because they are former communist countries and, after the 1990s, had too little value placed on nature conservation in favour of infrastructure development and agriculture. The development of the European ecological network Natura 2000 on these territories has come as an obligation for accession of these countries to The European Union on 01.01.2007. During the period 2006-2009 I made an analysis for the management of protected areas along the Danube Green Corridor, between Romania and Bulgaria, especially for wetlands, similar to the results of the WWF Germany project “Lower Danube - Green Corridor (LDGC): Freshwater protected area management and freshwater restoration in Bulgaria, Romania and trans-boundary conservation along the Lower Danube”. To have a complete view of the situation of the protected areas management between Romania and Bulgaria, along the Lower Danube Green Corridor, and the perspectives for the next years, I carried out some evaluation for more than 20 Natura 2000 sites, which are alike in many ways, such as: the object of protection (Sites of Community Importance, SCI, under the Habitats Directive; Special Protection Areas for birds, SPAs, under the Birds Directive; natural protected areas of national importance for these two countries, or other natural and semi natural areas with the potential to be protected), human activities, pressures and threats, and other aspects. Later, I used these results to make a comparative analysis of the Cernica area (Ilfov County, Romania), to add another argument to include it in the Natura 2000 Network from Romania, as ROSPA0122 Cernica Lake and Forest. This analysis showed that Cernica faces approximately the same pressures and threats as other protected areas and has almost the same efficiency in management planning as the highest assessed Natura 2000 SPAs, respectively Iezer-Călăraşi in Romania and Srebarna of Bulgaria, which is an argument to establish this area as a Natura 2000 site.

Barbus Meridionalis Risso 1827 (Syn. Barbus Balcanicus): Proposal for Monitoring Elements for Croatia, in the Context of Natura 2000

ABSTRACT The action framework at the European Union level for the protection of biodiversity was established based on the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) and the Birds Directive (79/409/EEC). One main element of the future implementation of these Directives in Croatia is the establishment of a Natura 2000 network of special protection sites, a network which should rely on a specific monitoring plan at national level for each species of community interest. In this context, the present study proposes a set of monitoring elements for Barbus meridionalis for the Croatian Continental Biogeographical Region. The proposal is based on seven main criteria: proximity of national border, high quality populations, habitats which should be ecologically reconstructed, key habitats/sectors with high importance for connectivity, point sources of industrial pollution, areas/sectors influenced by diffuse sources of agricultural pollution, and areas/sectors influenced by habitat modifications.