Birds Directive Research Articles

The decline of ground nesting birds in Europe: Do we need to manage predation in addition to habitat?

Bird populations are declining globally with losses recorded in many European breeding birds. Habitat management measures have not resulted in widespread reversal of these declines. We analysed national bird population trends from ten European countries (France, Hungary, Ireland, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK) for which data on individual bird species was freely available online in relation to the species’ nesting strategy (‘ground-nesting’ or ‘other’), Annex I designation (‘designated’ or ‘not designated’) and association with agricultural habitats for breeding (‘associated’ or ‘not associated’). For each country in our dataset, we also broadly categorised the following factors: farming intensity; predator community complexity; and predator control effort. Our results showed additive effects of nesting strategy, designation, and breeding habitats on the likelihood of population decline. Ground-nesting birds were 86 % more likely to decline than birds with other nesting strategies. Annex I designated species of the Birds Directive were 50 % less likely to decline than non-designated birds. Birds breeding primarily in agricultural habitat were more likely to decline than birds breeding in other habitats, interactively with farming intensity. Homogenous trends across Europe (i.e. trends in two or more countries that were either not declining in all countries or declining in all countries), indicate that the probability of population decline was related to nesting strategy and breeding habitat. Ground-nesting birds were 15.6 times more likely than other birds to have a declining trend across Europe, and birds nesting in agricultural habitats were 17.8 times more likely to decline than birds nesting in other habitats. Our results highlight a widespread challenge, therefore widespread instruments (e.g. legislation, economic policies, agri-environment schemes) will be required to reverse these declines. Ground-nesting species requirements can be complex and multiple strategies will be needed to restore populations including the development of predation management tools.

Cormorant management in Denmark: A retrospective analysis using the Systems Approach Framework

Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) aims to ensure sustainable management of coastal areas. The Systems Approach Framework (SAF) provides a structure for an ICM process that includes scenario simulations of management options for complex systems. Through the SAF stakeholders are identified and engaged at an early stage. Further, the SAF guides a process to assess the ecological sustainability, economic efficiency, and social equity of management options, even for complex issues. Implementation of the European Union's Birds Directive (BD) in 1979 instigated protective management plans to protect a waning population of cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis). Since then, multiple adjustments were made to the management plans to mitigate arising issues and conflicts. In this study, we used the SAF to conduct a retrospective analysis of cormorant management in Europe, Denmark, and a local community in order to identify which ICM elements were put into effect and their effectiveness. The analysis comprised the two initial steps of the SAF: Issue Identification and System Design. Data and information were extracted from EU and Danish management plans, available literature and interviews with stakeholders. The management process was divided into two periods related to the motivation: i), 1979–2002 focusing on cormorant protection promoted by nature conservations organisations, and ii), 2003–2020 focusing on ad hoc adaptive management to mitigate negative effects of an exponentially increasing cormorant population on other sectors and related income and activities. Our study revealed that cormorant management at all levels lacked elements important for a sustainable ICM process. Implementation of the BD was a top-down process leading to a single sector solution, influenced by a few highly organised stakeholders with strong views. The ecological issue of protecting the species was resolved, but the lack of Systems Thinking and specific success targets, for which indicators could have been developed, led to new conflicts and negative user perceptions. In response to increasing and new emerging conflicts, more stakeholders became involved during the second period. Thorough mapping of stakeholders, institutions and governance structures at the outset could have provided for a more transparent, inclusive, and participatory process. In addition, the management plans did not involve cross-sectorial, bio-economic assessments. The latter would have allowed deliberations of potential ecological and socio-economic consequences of different management options, which could have enhanced transparency and equity in the decision-making and thus could have facilitated compliance and long-term sustainability during implementation.

Drivers for the Diversity of Mollusc Communities in Unique Calcareous Fen Habitats

The research was carried out in calcareous fen habitats which share coverage with Natura 2000 sites designated under the EU Habitats and the Birds Directive. A total of 27 taxa of molluscs were recorded: 23 gastropod and 4 bivalve species. Anisus vorticulus, one of the species of Community interest whose conservation requires designation of special conservation areas within the Habitats Directive Natura 2000, was subrecedent and accedent in mollusc communities. Calcareous fen habitats offer the aquatic organisms harsh environmental conditions including a relatively high temperature of the water up to 33.29 °C (undrained fens), oxygen deficits in the water, high pH of up to 11.08 (fen pools) and conductivity above 3000 μS cm−1 (fen ditches). Therefore molluscs have to face extreme environmental conditions. Temperature of the water, pH, dissolved oxygen and conductivity were the parameters most associated with the distribution of mollusc species in the calcareous fen habitats. The abundance of submerged and floating macrophytes, the degree of habitat persistence and the fish predation pressure on molluscs also exerted a significant effect on their distribution. The calcareous fen habitats that are listed in Annex I of the European Union Habitats Directive create a unique valuable ecosystem that contributes to the natural diversity of aquatic organisms.

Spomenik prirode "Klisura reke Panjice", opština Arilje - područje izuzetnih geomorfološko-hidroloških vrednosti

The gorge valley of Panjica river, in the part where there is Vodena pećina cave with a strong Karst spring, as well as a tufa accumulation with two attractive waterfalls, has been proposed for designation as a nature monument of geomorphological-hydrological character under the name "Nature Monument Panjica river gorge". The conserved natural phenomena are represented by abundance of surface and underground Karst forms, a gorge that in some segments has elements of a canyon valley with vertical valley sides, up to several tens of meters high, rich tufa deposits, waterfalls, a series of small overfalls, overflows, rimstone pools and cascades, and the caves Vodena and Rasovačka (Hajdučka). The area is also special in terms of important species and ecosystem diversity, above all 85 species of birds, of which 67 are breeding birds, and 72 species have the status of strictly protected, of which 16 species are on Annex I of the Birds Directive. All of the above makes this area unique and undoubtedly worth of its status.

Empowering Through Law: Environmental NGOs as Regulatory Intermediaries in EU Nature Governance

AbstractPrivate ‘bottom-up’ enforcement has been central to the efforts of the European Union (EU) to promote effective compliance with its ambitious environmental laws. This approach is strengthened by the EU's implementation of the Aarhus Convention, which aims to democratize environmental enforcement by conferring citizens and environmental non-governmental organizations (ENGOs) with legal rights of access to environmental information, rights of public participation, and rights of access to justice (the so-called ‘Aarhus mechanisms’). This article empirically assesses the extent to which the Aarhus mechanisms empower ENGOs to take an active role in the private enforcement of the EU Habitats and Birds Directives. Based on 75 surveys and 30 interviews with ENGOs from three Member States (France, Ireland, the Netherlands), we apply regulatory intermediary theory to show how European ENGOs play a vital role in intermediating between (i) EU Member States and their citizens, (ii) the EU and individual citizens, and even (iii) the EU and its Member States. We bring new empirical insights into the role of law as an enabler of regulatory intermediaries, and its potential as a tool for orchestrating regulatory intermediaries.

Policy-Relevant Lists of Species

Biodiversity-related regulations often include lists of species in annexes of legal texts. Unfortunately, those publications are often published in PDF with lists in tables in annexes, not suitable for machine reading nor for incorporation into databases, decision making tools or any other information technology tools. This situation undermines efficient data reporting and therefore limits the follow-up of the policies. I tried to publish several species lists*1 from some key European Union legislation (e.g., the Habitats and Birds Directives) to ChecklistBank. Based on my experience, I will discuss the adequacy of existing biodiversity informatics standards to publish policy-relevant lists of species and see how they differ from usual taxonomic checklists. I will also suggest possible improvements to cope with the specificities of these policy-relevant lists.

Modelling the timing of migration of a partial migrant bird using ringing and observation data: a case study with the Song Thrush in Italy

BackgroundThe study of the timing of migration is fundamental to the understanding of the ecology of many bird species and their response to climate change, and it has important conservation and management implications e.g., for assessing the hunting seasons according to the EU Directive 2009/147/EC (Birds Directive).MethodsWe developed a new method for the analysis of ringing data (both first capture and re-encounters) and citizen science observations, to assess the timing of pre- and post-nuptial migration of birds. This method was tested on the Song Thrush Turdus philomelos, using i) the Bird Ringing Database hosted by the ISPRA Italian Ringing Centre from the whole Italian peninsula, the three closest large islands (Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica), and Canton Ticino (Switzerland) and ii) the eBird data for the same study area. ResultsThe results from both datasets consistently showed that pre-nuptial migration starts during the first 10-day period of January (Jan 1) in some central and southern areas of the Italian peninsula, in central Sicily, southern Sardinia, and Corsica. The onset of migration occurs on Jan 2 in the rest of central and southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia, and western Liguria, while it starts later in the north-eastern Alps, up to Mar 3. The end of post-nuptial migration is more synchronous, occurring on Nov 1 across most of Italy, slightly earlier (Oct 3) in northern Italy and later (Nov 2) in Sicily. The uncertainty of the estimated dates was < 2 days in most cases. ConclusionThis method represents a novel and valuable tool for the analyses of the timing of migration using ringing and citizen science data and provides an important contribution to the Key Concepts Document of the EU Birds Directive, where migration timings are considered and used to define the hunting period of birds.

The need for a flyway approach in defining the onset of prenuptial migration of huntable bird species across Europe

The identification of the onset of prenuptial migration is fundamental in defining the closing date of the hunting season in compliance with the EU Birds Directive. Here, we describe the process and country‐by‐country approach currently followed by the European Commission to define the onset of prenuptial migration for each huntable bird species and Member State, highlighting the resulting discrepancies and inconsistencies in the starting dates of prenuptial migration between neighbouring countries. To overcome these issues, we propose the adoption of a flyway approach with a shared, analytically and biologically sound method for defining the onset of migration.

Effect of nature protection and management of grassland on biodiversity – Case from big flooded river valley (NE Poland)

Agriculturally used meadows are habitats whose biodiversity depends on anthropogenic disturbances such as fertilization or mowing. Intensified agricultural practices (too frequent mowing, use of mineral fertilizers and insecticides) lead to declines in the abundance and species diversity of the biota inhabiting them. The intensification of agricultural production in north-eastern Poland relates primarily to the increase in cattle numbers and the intensification of grassland management, but many areas were included in Natura 2000 network. Our study was aimed at indicating the impact of diverse use of meadows on the species richness and diversity of invertebrates, amphibians, and birds in the grasslands of Narew river valley, Special Bird Protection Area, where the intensification of grassland use was noted in the last decades, and part of the meadows was included in the agri-environmental program. The agri-environmental program is a very good tool for the protection of grassland biotic diversity. The highest taxonomic richness and diversity of the studied animal groups were found in meadows included in these programs with extensive use, while the lowest was in the over- and intensively used meadows fertilized with mineral fertilizers and liquid manure. Only the meadows in the agri-environment program were inhabited by the fire-bellied toad and the tree frog - amphibians from Annex IV of the Habitats Directive. The number of breeding bird species globally threatened (IUCN Red List), listed in Annex I of the EU Birds Directive, and with negative population trend in Europe (SPEC1–3) was highest in meadows included in EU conservation programs. The main factors reducing biotic diversity in the grassland of flooded river valley were the high number of grassland mowing per season, intensive fertilization, especially with liquid manure, the great distance of meadows to the river, low soil humidity, and low share of shrubs and trees in the meadows border zone.

Linking Green Infrastructure Deployment Needs and Agroecosystem Conditions for the Improvement of the Natura2000 Network: Preliminary Investigations in W Mediterranean Europe

Reconnecting natural habitats and improving agroecosystem conditions are strategic targets set by several European policies. In order to combine both of these needs, the European Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 has triggered new investments in Green Infrastructure (GI), which actually represents a valuable tool to increase ecological connectivity across natural and semi-natural habitats. In particular, GI may benefit the Natura2000 (N2K) network (i.e., the network of protected sites under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives) by reinforcing the node/site number, extent, and distribution and by improving connections between often small and isolated habitat patches. However, there is a lack of knowledge on what the actual needs of GI deployment are for improving the current N2K network, on the distribution of these needs across Europe and on the potential role of agricultural areas in the improvement of the network functionality. Concurrently, especially in SW Europe, there is an ongoing trend toward the homogenisation and intensification of agricultural systems and the combined loss of associated landscape elements, such as natural and semi-natural Small Woody Features (SWF). Although a well-planned network of such elements could support biodiversity and landscape connectivity, thus effectively complementing the N2K network, little evidence is available on their abundance and residual distribution, especially in agricultural areas and at continental/bioregional scales. Therefore, the present work is aimed at (i) identifying different types of territorial units (NUTS3) in W Mediterranean Europe according to current N2K network features, the overall composition of the actual landscape mosaic and the potential natural heterogeneity of the environment and (ii) identifying and spatialising N2K-related GI deployment needs according to a more specific network analysis in terms of nodes (extent of the total protected area) and links (density of residual woody elements in arable land) within the different types of NUTS3. By means of this wide-scale investigation, four different types of GI deployment needs were generalised across the W Mediterranean Europe NUTS3. Overall, the need for connection restoration prevails, followed by the need for the consolidation of node and link conservation, for the creation of new protected sites and for the enlargement of existing N2K sites. Although useful for a preliminary setting, the shortcomings related to summary data at the European level were also highlighted when compared to local-scale information, with the latter being more suitable for identifying and prioritising truly effective GI conservation and restoration actions.

Where the Wild Things Are: Animal autonomy in EU Law

This article discusses how EU law makes sense of the encounters between wild animals and humans. Using the case law of the ECJ that involves wolves and hamsters, this article suggests that EU law is faced with the complex challenge of creating legal categories that can articulate and reflect animal autonomy. Two such legal categories are traced. A first focuses on animal agency and their mobility, assimilating – in legal terms – the movement of wild animals to that of persons crossing borders. A second focuses on animal alterity, that is, the fundamental otherness of wild animals. It is argued that only the latter allows us to make legally legible the conditions under which wildness manifests itself – not as a counterpoint to humanness, but as a meeting between species. animal autonomy, animal agency, animal alterity, Habitats Directive, Birds Directive

CMS Raptors MOU: New Opportunities for Raptors Conservation in Africa and Eurasia Emerging from the Third Meeting of Signatories

The Convention on Migratory Species’ Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa and Eurasia (Raptors MOU) represents a unique international agreement dedicated to the preservation of migratory raptors belonging to the orders Accipitriformes, Falconiformes, and Strigiformes. At the Third Meeting of Signatories to the Raptors MOU (MOS3), held in Dubai from 3 to 6 July 2023, significant progress was made towards advancing commitments for the conservation of these majestic birds. The primary outcomes of MOS3 are summarized below. Revised MOU mandate: An evaluation of the MOU’s implementation conducted in 2020 underscored the need to better align and enhance the clarity of the commitments contained in the MOU’s Text and in its Annexes (one of which being the MOU’s Action Plan). Consequently, several amendments to these documents were made. Notably, the Activities of the MOU’s Action Plan were comprehensively rewritten, with each now being accompanied by clear targets and means of verification. Updated list of species: The MOU now encompasses 94 distinct species of migratory bird of prey. Notably, the Yellow-billed Kite (Milvus aegyptius) is now recognized as a separate entity from the Black Kite (M. migrans). In addition, the MOU’s revision includes the new order Accipitriformes. Revised species categorization: Species listed under the Raptors MOU are categorized into one of three categories based on their extinction risk. At MOS3, individual species’ categories were updated according to the latest IUCN Red List assessment. The update resulted in an increased number of species classified under Category 1 (globally threatened or Near Threatened species) and Category 2 (species considered to have an unfavourable conservation status at a regional level), reflecting a deteriorating conservation status for 13 species. Conversely, only three species saw their conservation status improve and move to a lower category. Expanded list of internationally important sites for raptors: The MOU previously included a “Provisional list of Important Bird Areas that are known to be significant congregatory sites for birds of prey in Africa and Eurasia”. Now named “List of Internationally Important Sites for Migratory Birds of Prey”, the list has been broadened to incorporate sites listed as Important Bird Areas due to their importance for at least one species listed in Annex 1 of the MOU or because are “bottleneck” locations for migrating raptors. Additionally, those sites proposed by Signatories as meeting the same criteria have been included. Furthermore, for States current and former Members of the European Union the list includes sites designated as Special Protection Areas under the European Council’s Birds Directive. This network of important sites now represents the most extensive collective effort for raptor conservation in Africa and Eurasia, with the potential to significantly contribute to their preservation. Renewed membership of the Technical Advisory Group to the Raptors MOU (TAG): The purpose of the TAG is to serve and assist Signatories in the effective implementation of the Raptors MOU. A renewed TAG membership was elected at MOS3, increasing the number of serving women from one to four. First Raptor Conservation Status Assessment Report: Under the coordination of BirdLife International, the TAG has produced an assessment report of the conservation status of the raptor species covered by the MOU. This report paints a disconcerting picture of the rapidly declining conservation status of the 94 listed species, with 54% presenting declining global populations and 34% now facing elevated extinction risk. The most threatened group are Vultures (93% of spp. included in Category 1), followed by Eagles (50%) and Falcons (26%). The rate of extinction of migratory raptor listed in the MOU is outpacing that of all birds and even all raptors in general. The report emphasizes that the principal threats to these birds are habitat loss and degradation, illegal killing and taking, and electrocution and collision with energy infrastructure. Notably, the impact of electrocution and collision may be underestimated, as one-third of satellite-tagged raptors (excluding vultures) fall victim to these hazards. In light of these alarming findings, it is evident that a coordinated, collaborative effort involving researchers, conservationists, governments and other stakeholdersis imperative to mitigate the decline of migratory raptors. The Raptors MOU stands as a crucial technical framework that can facilitate and guide these essential conservation endeavors. The development of International Single Species Action Plans for Black Harrier (Circus maurus), Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis), Beaudouin’s Snake Eagle (Circaetus beaudouini), Pallas’s Fish Eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus), Steller’s Sea Eagle (H. pelagicus) and Tawny Eagle (A. rapax) is considered a priority.

Birds in Europe 4: the fourth assessment of Species of European Conservation Concern

Summary This is the fourth comprehensive assessment of the population status of all wild bird species in Europe. It identifies Species of European Conservation Concern (SPECs) so that action can be taken to improve their status. Species are categorised according to their global extinction risk, the size and trend of their European population and range, and Europe’s global responsibility for them. Of the 546 species assessed, 207 (38%) are SPECs: 74 (14%) of global concern (SPEC 1); 32 (6%) of European concern and concentrated in Europe (SPEC 2); and 101 (18%) of European concern but not concentrated in Europe (SPEC 3). The proportion of SPECs has remained similar (38–43%) across all four assessments since 1994, but the number of SPEC 1 species of global concern has trebled. The 44 species assessed as Non-SPECs in the third assessment (2017) but as SPECs here include multiple waders, raptors and passerines that breed in arctic, boreal or alpine regions, highlighting the growing importance of northern Europe and mountain ecosystems for bird conservation. Conversely, the 62 species assessed as SPECs in 2017 but as Non-SPECs here include various large waterbirds and raptors that are recovering due to conservation action. Since 1994, the number of specially protected species (listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive) qualifying as SPECs has fallen by 33%, while the number of huntable (Annex II) species qualifying as SPECs has risen by 56%. The broad patterns identified previously remain evident: 100 species have been classified as SPECs in all four assessments, including numerous farmland and steppe birds, ducks, waders, raptors, seabirds and long-distance migrants. Many of their populations are heavily depleted or continue to decline and/or contract in range. Europe still holds 3.4–5.4 billion breeding birds, but more action to halt and reverse losses is needed.

Are we overlooking Natura 2000 sites? Lessons learned from a transnational project in the Adriatic Sea

Since the adoption of the Habitats and Birds Directives by EU governments, marine Natura 2000 (N2K) sites have been established in the European Mediterranean Sea, creating one of the largest international networks of protected areas. Nevertheless, to date, marine N2K sites are generally scarcely implemented, studied and monitored, and thus their management effectiveness is weak, and their environmental status is often unknown. The Interreg Italy-Croatia ECOSS project aimed at establishing the ECOlogical observing system of the Adriatic Sea (ECOAdS), to integrate the existing research and monitoring activities in the area, and to promote data sharing at international level, for enhancing monitoring and conservation in Adriatic N2K network. In the framework of ECOSS, a conceptual model was developed and applied to selected N2K sites, to review the existing knowledge, assess site effectiveness, and suggest possible improvements in their monitoring and management based on the contribution that ECOAdS can provide to their implementation. Information on social, ecological, and oceanographic elements related to the conservation and management of these case studies was gathered by consulting the project partners involved in the management and monitoring of the sites and through a literature review. The results of this study revealed a discouraging condition with no management plan in most of the sites, while regulatory measures are generally in place but without surveillance. Monitoring activities are performed occasionally, and information on presence and status of protected species is often lacking or outdated. Although the N2K network provides a unique opportunity to advance marine conservation and achieve the 30% conservation target by 2030, the biggest challenge ahead is the proper management and monitoring of N2K sites. The proposed conceptual model may be taken as a framework to properly set up ecological observing systems in the N2K network and help overcome current limitations, integrating scientific research within the N2K conservation strategies.

The Long-Lasting Territories of Forest Apex Predators Sustain Diverse Bird Communities throughout the Year

Apex predators, such as raptors, are used as surrogates to attain conservation objectives; however, their presence in a particular area does not necessarily mean long-term occurrence. Here we used data on long-lasting (20–40 years) territories of two generalist raptors: the diurnal Northern goshawk and the nocturnal Ural owl in deciduous and coniferous forests of southern Poland to assess their role as hotspots of bird diversity. Species richness and abundance of birds were much higher in the long-lasting territories of both apex predators than in random never-occupied sites and this pattern was common for breeding and wintering periods. These differences were more pronounced in deciduous than coniferous stands. Rare bird species (e.g., annexed in the Bird Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the conservation of wild birds such as some woodpeckers and flycatchers) were found to be particularly associated with long-lasting territories of raptors. Long-lasting territories were also characterized by greater forest habitat quality (e.g., higher number of old trees and deadwood) with lower management intensity. These results strongly point to the role of long-lasting territories of raptors as surrogates of biodiversity. Such territories, if known in forests, could be excellent for the designation of protected areas or logging there should at least be reduced to allow for the continuous breeding of apex predators and associated bird assemblages.

Heavy metals in lake surface sediments in protected areas in Poland: concentration, pollution, ecological risk, sources and spatial distribution

This paper presents the state and spatial distribution of surface sediment contamination of 77 lakes in Poland by Cr, Ni, Cd, Pb, Zn, and Cu. The analyzed lakes were located within a network of nature protection areas in the territory of the European Union (EU). Spatial distribution of the heavy metals (HMs), factors favoring the delivery/accumulation of HMs in surface sediments, and pollution sources were analyzed. The results indicate the contamination of lake sediments by HMs, but the potentially toxic effects of HMs are only found in single lakes. The spatial distribution of Cr indicates predominant impacts of point sources, while for Pb, Ni, and Zn, the impact of non-point sources. The analysis showed the presence of areas with very high values of particular HMs (hot spots) in the western part of Poland, while a group of 5 lakes with very low values of Ni, Pb, and Zn (cold spots) was identified in the central part of Poland. Principal component analysis showed that presence of wetlands is a factor limiting HMs inflow to lakes. Also, lower HMs concentrations were found in lake surface sediments located in catchments with a higher proportion of national parks and nature reserves. Higher HMs concentrations were found in lakes with a high proportion of Special Protection Areas designated under the EU Birds Directive. The positive matrix factorization analysis identified four sources of HMs. High values of HMs concentrations indicate their delivery from industrial, urbanized, and agricultural areas. However, these impacts overlap, which disturbs the characteristic quantitative profiles assigned to these pollution sources.

A GIS-based framework to determine spatially explicit priority categories for flood risk management intervention schemes

Abstract The necessity of plural valuation of costs for flood risk management is widely acknowledged, but practical case studies are still scarce. We developed a GIS-based plural valuation framework to determine spatially explicit priority categories for flood risk management intervention schemes on the Drava River, Southern Hungary. A conventional economic evaluation, including land market prices and additional costs due to legal conservation restrictions, was complemented by ecological valuation of vulnerability. The inclusion of ecological vulnerability significantly changed the proposed priority areas for flood risk management interventions: in this case, softwood riparian forests face far less threat, together with other Natura 2000 habitats, in comparison to unprotected wetlands and grasslands. This valuation framework also highlights priority habitats and areas for joint conservation and water management projects, utilising the synergies between several EU Directives as the Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, Flood Directive, and Water Framework Directive. Our framework is adaptable for the other floodplains along major or medium-sized European rivers, assuming that specific local settings are considered.

Anthropogenic Pressure and Climate Change Could Severely Hamper the Avian Metacommunity of the Sicilian Wetlands

Our study shows that the current levels of anthropogenic exploitation of the Sicilian wetlands (Italy), combined with the likely exacerbation of climate-driven variables, are unsustainable and could soon exclude many bird species from this metacommunity. Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and its wetlands represent a network of unreplaceable stopover sites that allow waterbirds to rest and refuel during migratory journeys along the central-eastern Mediterranean bird flyway. During the summer period, these species experience higher levels of environmental stress as water scarcity and anthropogenic pressure are at their peak. Through field surveys, geoprocessing and statistical analyses, we investigated: (a) the structure of the avian metacommunity of the largest Sicilian wetlands during July–September and (b) the effects of 10 (geographic, hydrological and anthropogenic) wetland attributes on avian diversity. We sampled 73 bird species, of which 30 are listed in annex I of the Birds Directive. The avian metacommunity was significantly nested and non-modular; in addition, it presented elevated beta diversity and random species assemblage. Environmental filtering superseded biotic interactions in determining species composition. Avian diversity was significantly favored by higher water levels, water-level fluctuations and water discharges, and disfavored by water diversion, salinity and tourism pressure. The knowledge concerning the particular structure of the avian metacommunity of the Sicilian wetlands can facilitate the implementation of conservation policies that could mitigate and compensate the effects of short- and mid-term risks.

Recent changes in colony sizes of two seabird species in Scotland are not strongly influenced by Birds Directive status of the colony

Special Protection Areas (SPAs) designated under the EU Birds Directive have improved the conservation status of many terrestrial bird species in Europe, but protecting breeding sites may be less effective for highly mobile birds such as seabirds. Colony census data for Great Skuas Stercorarius skua and Great Black‐backed Gulls Larus marinus in Scotland show that breeding numbers have fared no better in sites where these species are SPA breeding features and, counter‐intuitively, the evidence indicates better performance in non‐SPA colonies, most likely because non‐SPA colonies are generally smaller so are less subject to density‐dependent competition. The main drivers of population change are widespread rather than colony‐based in these two species with recent reductions in carrying capacity. Many other seabird species are vulnerable to similar widespread pressures so seabird conservation strategy needs to focus on mitigating these pressures, as designation of seabird breeding sites as SPAs is not enough to ensure effective seabird conservation.

The Reality Gap: Simplification of Environmental Law as Key for the Acceleration of Permit Procedures for Europe’s Green Deal

To reach climate goals, there is a need for large scale changes to the energy system. This requires speedy permitting procedures. However, permitting procedures are everything else but speedy. Thus, there is a need to simplify the rules to accelerate the permit procedures. While permitting procedures are largely governed by national law, the central issue for large scale infrastructure projects is to handle the high standards of EU Environmental law. Enlarged rights of individuals and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) to bring any mistaken application of these rules to court and thus stop projects from realization for years, represent the major risks of delay for the realization of infrastructure projects. Shortcomings on the application of EU Environmental law in permitting procedures are not only caused by narrow time schedules and stingy project promoters, but mainly by an overcomplex system of partly unclear rules that is evolving in the jurisdiction of the European Court of Justice (ECJ) only in one direction: Making every single rule even stricter case by case before the ECJ. This is reality. To cut on the duration of permit procedures for reaching climate goals in time, European environmental law needs to be adapted. Without streamlining and simplifying EU environmental law, all efforts to accelerate permit procedures are doomed to failure. This article suggests adaptations of the European Habitats and Birds Directives, Water Framework Directive and Environmental Impact Assessments Directive to significantly accelerate permit procedures. IMO Sulphur Regulation, Shipowner, Charterer, EGCS, Low Sulphur Fuel