Bioelectronic Applications Research Articles

Highly Stable Flexible Organic Electrochemical Transistors with Natural Rubber Latex Additives.

Organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs) have attracted considerable interest in the context of wearable and implantable biosensors due to their remarkable signal amplification combined with seamless integration into biological systems. These properties underlie OECTs' potential utility across a range of bioelectronic applications. One of the main challenges to their practical applications is the mechanical limitation of PEDOT:PSS, the most typical conductive polymer used as a channel layer, when the OECTs are applied to implantable and stretchable bioelectronics. In this work, we address this critical issue by employing natural rubber latex (NRL) as an additive in PEDOT:PSS to improve flexibility and stretchability of the OECT channels. Although the inclusion of NRL leads to a decrease in transconductance, mainly due to a reduced carrier mobility from 0.3 to 0.1 cm2/V·s, the OECTs maintain satisfactory transconductance, exceeding 5 mS. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that the OECTs exhibit excellent mechanical stability while maintaining their performance even after 100 repetitive bending cycles. This work, therefore, suggests that the NRL/PEDOT:PSS composite film can be deployed for wearable/implantable applications, where high mechanical stability is needed. This finding opens up new avenues for practical use of OECTs in more robust and versatile wearable and implantable biosensors.

(Invited) 3D Printing-Assisted Casting of Conducting Polymers for Bioelectronics

3D structured conducting polymers, known for their high conductivity, low impedance, and tunable form factor, are promising candidates for various bioelectronics applications. However, achieving a balance between structural complexity, electrical conductance, and processing generality has been challenging in these materials. In this talk, I will discuss our efforts to address this trade-off through 3D printing-assisted casting. Light-based 3D printing is used to create hollow molds, providing structural complexity and design freedom, whereas the casting nature imparts material versatility. The casting molds are made of superabsorbent polymers and printed in a partially hydrated state. Their dehydration provides significant enhancement in feature resolution and excellent thermal and mechanical properties, making them versatile for casting. After casting, over-hydration of the molds facilitate their energy-efficient removal. Using poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) as a model system, complex architectures such as octet and truncated octahedron can be achieved. Compositing silver flakes with PEDOT through a thermal injection process leads to prints with conductivity over 6000 S/cm and high environmental stability. This method can potentially be applied to other hard-to-print soft materials and composites.

Self‐Doped Mixed Ionic‐Electronic Conductors to Tune the Threshold Voltage and the Mode of Operation in Organic Electrochemical Transistors

AbstractOrganic mixed ionic‐electronic conductors with tunable doping, low threshold voltages, and air stability are crucial for bioelectronic applications. A homopolymer based on an alkoxy thiophene monomer and its copolymer with a thiophene carrying ethylene glycol side chains are synthesized and converted to self‐doped conjugated polyelectrolytes, P3HOTS‐TMA+, and P3HOTS‐TMA+‐co‐P3MEEET. The self‐doping occurs during the conversion to polyelectrolytes. Both polyelectrolytes show high electrical conductivity without any external dopants. UV–Vis–NIR spectroscopy and spectroelectrochemistry confirm excellent air stability of the doped state. In an organic electrochemical transistor (OECT), the P3HOTS‐TMA+ operates in depletion mode, while P3HOTS‐TMA+‐co‐P3MEEET exhibits accumulation mode of operation with low threshold voltage, both showing fast response times. On the other hand, the non‐doped homopolymer, P3MEEET, shows a high negative threshold voltage in accumulation mode. Thus, copolymerization with the self‐dopable monomer changes the mode of operation as well as the threshold voltage substantially. Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy reveals a considerable reduction of the hole injection barrier for the self‐doped system P3HOTS‐TMA+. Mott‐Schottky analysis shows reduction in charge carrier concentration in the copolymer compared to the homopolymer. Thus, the copolymerization strategy with a self‐dopable monomer is an efficient tool for tuning the degree of doping leading to low threshold voltage in OECTs.

The Dimensionality of Hydrogen Bond Networks Induces Diverse Physical Properties of Peptide Crystals.

Short peptides are attractive building blocks for the fabrication of self-assembled materials with significant biological, chemical, and physical properties. The microscopic and macroscopic properties of assemblies are usually closely related to the dimensionality of formed hydrogen bond networks. Here, two completely different supramolecular architectures connected by distinct hydrogen bond networks were obtained by simply adding a hydroxyl group to switch from cyclo-tryptophan-alanine (cyclo-WA) to cyclo-tryptophan-serine (cyclo-WS). While hydroxyl-bearing cyclo-WS molecules provided an additional hydrogen bond donor that links to adjacent molecules, forming a rigid three-dimensional network, cyclo-WA arranged into a water-mediated zipper-like structure with a softer two-dimensional layer template. This subtle alteration resulted in a 14-fold enhancement of Young's modulus values in cyclo-WS compared to cyclo-WA. Both cyclo-dipeptides exhibit biocompatibility, high fluorescence, and piezoelectricity. The demonstrated role of dimensionality of hydrogen bond networks opens new avenues for rational design of materials with precise morphologies and customizable properties for bioelectronic applications.

Cation‐Dependent Mixed Ionic‐Electronic Transport in a Perylenediimide Small‐Molecule Semiconductor

A rapidly growing interest in organic bioelectronic applications has spurred the development of a wide variety of organic mixed ionic‐electronic conductors. While these new mixed conductors have enabled the community to interface organic electronics with biological systems and efficiently transduce biological signals (ions) into electronic signals, the current materials selection does not offer sufficient selectivity towards specific ions of biological relevance without the use of auxiliary components such as ion‐selective membranes. Here, we present the molecular design of an n‐type (electron‐transporting) perylene diimide semiconductor material decorated with pendant oligoether groups to facilitate interactions with cations such as Na+ and K+. Using the cyclic 15‐crown‐5 oligoether motif, we find that the resulting mixed conductor PDI‐crown displays a strong dependence on the size of the electrolyte cation when tested in an organic electrochemical transistor configuration. In stark contrast to the low current response on the order of 1 µA observed with aqueous sodium chloride, a nearly 200‐fold increase in current is observed with aqueous potassium chloride. We ascribe the high selectivity to extended molecular aggregation and therefore efficient charge transport in the presence of K+ due to a favourable sandwich‐like structure between two adjacent 15‐crown‐5 motifs and the potassium ion.

Investigation of numerical transport models in protein-based molecular junctions with cofactors of diverse chemical natures

The cofactors of proteins dictate the charge transport mechanism across molecular junctions when self-assembled protein monolayers are sandwiched between two metal electrodes. Here, we summarized how the chemical coordination nature of cofactors in various proteins modulates electrical conductance by investigating electronic transport studies across different protein-based molecular junctions under various forces applied under the AFM tip. We have utilized several numerical techniques of electronic transport to analyse the experimentally obtained current–voltage measurements across various protein-based molecular junctions and depicted the origin of electronic modulation in the electrical conductance under different external stimuli. We could also find the origin of electronic conductance modulation under external stimuli at various applied forces by obtaining several analytical transport parameters such as energy barrier, coupling strength, and electrical conductance values. Utilizing density-functional-theory calculations, we further validate that the electronic density of states present in the cofactors within the proteins dominates the electronic transport behaviours across protein-based molecular junctions. Our findings reveal the limiting factor for applying various external stimuli on different proteins, which could be further valuable in bioelectronic applications. We have also found that the organic cofactor containing protein follows all the tunneling mechanism-related numerical transport models and the electronic transport across proteins with pure inorganic cofactors follows Landauer transport formalism.

Photo-programmable hydrogel iontronics for electrically and chromatically rewritable circuits

Hydrogel-based iontronics is emerging as a promising frontier in healthcare and human-machine interfacing (HMI), offering excellent compatibility with biological systems in terms of electrical, chemical, and mechanical properties. However, conventional hydrogel systems have limitations in dynamically regulating their electrical and optical properties, which restricts their use in adaptive electronics and responsive interfaces. In this study, we present a new hydrogel system with UV photochemistry-induced reversible conductivity, enabling reversible changes in conductivity. Unlike typical photo-responsive hydrogels that revert to their original states upon removal of the light source, the new hydrogel can maintain its activated states without continuous light exposure, facilitating practical applications. By leveraging the photobase triphenylmethane leucohydroxide and photoacid n-nitrobenzaldehyde, we achieve a significant increase in photo-induced conductivity compared to existing photo-ionic hydrogels. Combining the effective photo-induced conductivity and the accompanied photochromatic effect, we demonstrate a full hydrogel-based stylus pad capable of tracking motion and strokes, and a soft calculator keypad with programmable conductivity and imprinted patterns. These advancements underscore the importance of actively controlling localized conductivity and processing light inputs in hydrogels, exhibiting their potential for diverse applications in bioelectronics and HMI.

Ti2TaC2: A novel out-of-plane ordered MXene towards flexible and cytocompatible supercapacitors

Exploring biocompatible and flexible supercapacitor electrode material is crucial for expanding the development of health monitoring bioelectronics. MXene films, due to their low cost, high conductivity, and excellent durability under different deformation conditions, are highly competitive in bioelectronic device applications compared with traditional carbon-based materials. Herein, a novel out-of-plane ordered double transition metal MXene (Ti2TaC2) is elaborately designed and originally synthesized, where Ti atoms preferentially reside in the outer transition metal layer and Ta atoms occupy in the middle layer. Theoretical calculations prove that the introduction of Ta species into Ti3C2 MXene enlarges the work function, raises the d-band center close to Fermi level and increases the density of states of d-orbital. Consequently, the Ti2TaC2 film delivers high specific capacitance of 313 F g−1 at 2 mV s−1 and excellent cycling stability without capacitance loss after 10,000 cycles at 10 A/g. Furthermore, the safety and cytotoxicity of Ti2TaC2 material are innovatively evaluated in vitro multiple cell lines (e.g., 293T, bEnd.3, PC-12, BV2 and HUVEC cells) and implanted into the subcutaneous tissue of mice, proving its good biosafety and cytocompatibility. The results suggest that flexible Ti2TaC2 MXene film may be a promising cytocompatible electrode material for long-term health monitoring bioelectronics.

Surface-Grafted Biocompatible Polymer Conductors for Stable and Compliant Electrodes for Brain Interfaces.

Durable and conductive interfaces that enable chronic and high-resolution recording of neural activity are essential for understanding and treating neurodegenerative disorders. These chronic implants require long-term stability and small contact areas. Consequently, they are often coated with a blend of conductive polymers and are crosslinked to enhance durability despite the potentially deleterious effect of crosslinking on the mechanical and electrical properties. Here the grafting of the poly(3,4 ethylenedioxythiophene) scaffold, poly(styrenesulfonate)-b-poly(poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate block copolymer brush to gold, in a controlled and tunable manner, by surface-initiated atom-transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP) is described. This "block-brush" provides high volumetric capacitance (120 F cm─3), strong adhesion to the metal (4h ultrasonication), improved surface hydrophilicity, and stability against 10000 charge-discharge voltage sweeps on a multiarray neural electrode. In addition, the block-brush film showed 33% improved stability against current pulsing. This approach can open numerous avenues for exploring specialized polymer brushes for bioelectronics research and application.

All-organic nanocomposite with strong photo-pyroelectric response and its application in retinal prosthesis

In patients with retinal degenerative diseases, vision restoration is feasible through implanted artificial retinal prostheses to stimulate surviving neurons. Photoelectric composites based on ferroelectric polymers have been attempted to construct retinal prostheses. However, these materials normally have a low photoelectric response and a narrow response wavelength range. Here, we synthesize conjugated poly-Schiff base nanoparticles with ultra-small size, and the nanocomposites of the nanoparticles and poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene) (P(VDF-TrFE)) ferroelectric polymer generate a high photoelectric response (maximum peak-to-peak voltage > 90 V) under visible and near-infrared light. This flexible all-organic nanocomposite has good biocompatibility and can establish effective signal transduction with neuron cells. We explored the use of composites to construct ferroelectric retinal prostheses. Electrophysiological tests and animal behavior analysis have preliminary shown that implanted retinal prostheses can restore the visible light sensitivity of blind rats and further endow them with the ability to perceive infrared light, demonstrating their potential application in bioelectronics. This work presents a novel all-organic ferroelectric polymer composite with flexibility, biocompatibility, and excellent photoelectric response that can be used for artificial retinal prostheses. The nanocomposite composed of ultra-small conjugated nanoparticles and ferroelectric P(VDF-TrFE) exhibits excellent photo-pyroelectric response under visible and infrared light, with a peak-to-peak voltage exceeding 90 V. The ultra-thin retinal prostheses (∼ 20 µm) constructed from this nanocomposite can directly stimulate nerve cells, effectively restore the visual function of blind rats, and endow them with infrared light sensitivity.

Eco-Friendly Biomemristive Nonvolatile Memory: Harnessing Organic Waste for Sustainable Technology.

Organic material-based bioelectronic nonvolatile memory devices have recently received a lot of attention due to their environmental compatibility, simple fabrication recipe, preferred scalability, low cost, low power consumption, and numerous additional advantages. Resistive random-access memory (RRAM) devices work on the principle of resistive switching, which has the potential for applications in memory storage and neuromorphic computing. Here, natural organically grown orange peel was used to extract biocompatible pectin to design a resistive switching-based memory device of the structure Ag/Pectin/Indium tin oxide (ITO), and the behavior was studied between a temperature range of 10K and 300K. The microscopic characterization revealed the texture of the surface and thickness of the layers. The memristive current-voltage characteristics performed over 1000 consecutive cycles of repeated switching revealed sustainable bipolar resistive switching behavior with a high ON/OFF ratio. The underlying principle of Resistive Switching behavior is based on the formation of conductive filaments between the electrodes, which is explained in this work. Further, we have also designed a 2 × 2 crossbar array of RRAM devices to demonstrate various logic circuit operations useful for neuromorphic computing. The robust switching characteristics suggest possible uses of such devices for the design of ecofriendly bioelectronic memory applications and in-memory computing.

In Situ Growth of Columnar PEG on PEDOT and Its Antifouling Properties.

The antifouling properties of conductive polymers have received extensive attention for biosensor and bioelectronic applications. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is a well-known antifouling material, but the controlled regulation of the surface topography of PEG without a template remains a challenge. Here, we show a columnar structure antifouling conductive polymer brush with enhanced antifouling properties and considerable conductivity. The method involves synthesizing the 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene monomer modified with azide (EDOT-N3), the electropolymerization of PEDOT-N3, and the in situ growth of PEG polymer brushes on PEDOT through double-click reactions. The resultant columnar structure polymer brush exhibits high electrical conductivity (3.5 Ω·cm2), ultrahigh antifouling property, electrochemical stability (capacitance retention was 93.8% after 2000 cycles of CV scans in serum), and biocompatibility.

Automated Scanning Dielectric Microscopy Toolbox for Operando Nanoscale Electrical Characterization of Electrolyte‐Gated Organic Transistors

AbstractElectrolyte‐gated organic transistors (EGOTs) leveraging organic semiconductors' electronic and ionic transport characteristics are the key enablers for many biosensing and bioelectronic applications that can selectively sense, record, and monitor different biological and biochemical processes at the nanoscale and translate them into macroscopic electrical signals. Understanding such transduction mechanisms requires multiscale characterization tools to comprehensively probe local electrical properties and link them with device behavior across various bias points. Here, an automated scanning dielectric microscopy toolbox is demonstrated that performs operando in‐liquid scanning dielectric microscopy measurements on functional EGOTs and carries out extensive data analysis to unravel the evolution of local electrical properties in minute detail. This paper emphasizes critical experimental considerations permitting standardized, accurate, and reproducible data acquisition. The developed approach is validated with EGOTs based on blends of organic small molecule semiconductor and insulating polymer that work as accumulation‐mode field‐effect transistors. Furthermore, the degradation of local electrical characteristics at high gate voltages is probed, which is apparently driven by the destruction of local crystalline order due to undesirable electrochemical swelling of the organic semiconducting material near the source electrode edge. The developed approach paves the way for systematic probing of EGOT‐based technologies for targeted optimization and fundamental understanding.

Degradable and Recyclable Hydrogels for Sustainable Bioelectronics.

Hydrogel bioelectronics has been widely used in wearable sensors, electronic skin, human-machine interfaces, and implantable tissue-electrode interfaces, providing great convenience for human health, safety, and education. The generation of electronic waste from bioelectronic devices jeopardizes human health and the natural environment. The development of degradable and recyclable hydrogels is recognized as a paradigm for realizing the next generation of environmentally friendly and sustainable bioelectronics. This review first summarizes the wide range of applications for bioelectronics, including wearable and implantable devices. Then, the employment of natural and synthetic polymers in hydrogel bioelectronics is discussed in terms of degradability and recyclability. Finally, this work provides constructive thoughts and perspectives on the current challenges toward hydrogel bioelectronics, providing valuable insights and guidance for the future evolution of sustainable hydrogel bioelectronics.

Self-Evolving Hierarchical Hydrogel Fibers with Circadian Rhythms and Memory Functions.

The fusion of hierarchical tissues at interfaces, incorporating ultrafast selective transport channels, enables efficient matter exchange and energy transfer across multiscale structures in living organisms. However, achieving these characteristics simultaneously in an artificial multimaterial system is challenging. Here, this work presents a multimaterial hydrogel fiber with a hierarchical structure of interface fusion, which forms spontaneously through in situ hierarchy evolution induced by ionic cross-linking and molecular shear flow. Water transport occurs in the angstrom-scale confined slits created by aligned cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) by direct Coulomb knock-on, resembling Newton's cradle motion. The fusion of interfaces enables high-efficiency water transport across multiscale layers, combined with Newton's cradle-like collective water motion, creating a highly sensitive negative feedback loop within the fiber. These fibers exhibit integrated behaviors of time-space perception, short-term memory and adaptive changes in shape. Additionally, they demonstrate rhythm characteristics, changing periodically in a 24-h day-night cycle. Composed of natural building blocks, these hierarchical hydrogel fibers exhibit a memristor effect similar to that of an elementary neuron, making them promising for applications in seamless on-skin and implantable bioelectronics.

Multifunctional Conductive Hydrogel Interface for Bioelectronic Recording and Stimulation.

The past few decades have witnessed the rapid advancement and broad applications of flexible bioelectronics, in wearable and implantable electronics, brain-computer interfaces, neural science and technology, clinical diagnosis, treatment, etc. It is noteworthy that soft and elastic conductive hydrogels, owing to their multiple similarities with biological tissues in terms of mechanics, electronics, water-rich, and biological functions, have successfully bridged the gap between rigid electronics and soft biology. Multifunctional hydrogel bioelectronics, emerging as a new generation of promising material candidates, have authentically established highly compatible and reliable, high-quality bioelectronic interfaces, particularly in bioelectronic recording and stimulation. This review summarizes the material basis and design principles involved in constructing hydrogel bioelectronic interfaces, and systematically discusses the fundamental mechanism and unique advantages in bioelectrical interfacing with the biological surface. Furthermore, an overview of the state-of-the-art manufacturing strategies for hydrogel bioelectronic interfaces with enhanced biocompatibility and integration with the biological system is presented. This review finally exemplifies the unprecedented advancement and impetus toward bioelectronic recording and stimulation, especially in implantable and integrated hydrogel bioelectronic systems, and concludes with a perspective expectation for hydrogel bioelectronics in clinical and biomedical applications.

Impact of deposition temperature on persistent photoconductivity of SnO2 thin films deposited using spray pyrolysis technique suitable in optoelectronic synaptic devices

In this study, nanocrystalline tin oxide thin films that exhibited enhanced persistent photoconductivity (PPC) were prepared using spray pyrolysis technique. The effect of deposition temperature on different aspects of photoconductivity of these films were analysed using different characterization techniques. Raman analysis confirmed the tetragonal rutile structure of the films and also indicated their nanocrystalline nature, while XPS analysis verified the presence and oxidation states of tin and oxygen in the films. The films demonstrated UV sensing capability under above-bandgap illumination, generating electron-hole pairs and enhancing electrical conductivity. The deposition temperature of the film influenced their photocurrent characteristics, showcasing varied responses in terms of photosensitivity and photocurrent. Enhancement of photoresponse was observed with the increase in deposition temperatures of the samples. Notably, films deposited at 450 and 500 °C exhibited the more persistent photocurrent at the tested deposition temperatures. The surface defects, oxygen vacancies and grain boundaries played a significant role in sustaining PPC by ionizing vacancies and creating persistent carriers even after light exposure by trapping free carriers and impeding recombination. From the exponential fitting and extrapolation of the decay curves, the sample prepared at 450 °C was observed to be the most suitable film in application point of view for fabricating devices that make use of persistent photoconductivity. Overall, this work highlights the effectiveness of modulation of deposition temperature in influencing photoconductor parameters of spray pyrolyzed tin oxide films, offering potential applications in non-volatile memory, bionic optoelectronics, neuromorphic computing and bioelectronics.

Soft bioelectronics for diagnostic and therapeutic applications in neurological diseases

Physical and chemical signals in the central nervous system yield crucial information that is clinically relevant under both physiological and pathological conditions. The emerging field of bioelectronics focuses on the monitoring and manipulation of neurophysiological signals with high spatiotemporal resolution and minimal invasiveness. Significant advances have been realized through innovations in materials and structural design, which have markedly enhanced mechanical and electrical properties, biocompatibility, and overall device performance. The diagnostic and therapeutic potential of soft bioelectronics has been corroborated across a diverse array of pre-clinical settings. This review summarizes recent studies that underscore the developments and applications of soft bioelectronics in neurological disorders, including neuromonitoring, neuromodulation, tumor treatment, and biosensing. Limitations and outlooks of soft devices are also discussed in terms of power supply, wireless control, biocompatibility, and the integration of artificial intelligence. This review highlights the potential of soft bioelectronics as a future platform to promote deciphering brain functions and clinical outcomes of neurological diseases.

Metal-organic frameworks as an active substrate for cell-interaction studies and cell-on-a-chip platforms

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are an emerging class of nanomaterials with immense biomedical potential for their unique interactions with biological and organic materials. In this work, we select two candidate two-dimensional (2D) MOF systems based on Fe3+ and Ni2+ metal centers and 2-aminoterephthalate acid ligand (Fe-MOF and Ni-MOF) and evaluate their performance as an active interface for study of cell-interactions. 2D Fe-MOF and Ni-MOF were synthesized onto hydroxyl-modified gold and glass substrates using a layer-by-layer liquid-phase-epitaxy (LbL-LPE) growth at room temperature and used as active substrates (Fe-MOF/glass, Fe-MOF/Au, Ni-MOF/glass and Ni-MOF/Au, respectively) for MTT cell-proliferation and reactive oxygen species tests using the PC-12 cell-line in order to investigate the biocompatibility. Immunostaining and morphological analyses of PC-12 cells on MOF interfaces suggested a stronger cell-substrate interaction in comparison to glass and were further characterized using the Electrical Cell-substrate Impedance Sensing (ECIS) technique, here for the first time, employed to study cell attachment, spreading and proliferation on 2D Fe-MOF. The 2D Fe-MOF showed superior long-term stability in cell culture medium by recording impedance over 24 h, crucial to monitor cell-dynamics at a solid-liquid interface. A significant increase of interfacial impedance was observed in ECIS, due to PC-12 cells adhering onto 2D Fe-MOF, which was also confirmed by the focused ion beam etching followed by scanning electron microscopy. Our novel findings, therefore, suggest 2D MOFs as highly suitable platform for the study of cell-related interactions using electrical techniques and potentially pave the way for future use of MOFs for bioelectronics and biosensor applications.

Biocompatibility assessment of organic semiconductor pigments epindolidione and quinacridone

Organic colorants epindolidione (EPI) and quinacridone (QUI) are commercially available hydrogen-bonded semiconductor pigments. Despite their suitable properties for bioelectronic applications, their biocompatibility has not been thoroughly examined yet. In this study, thin EPI and QUI layers were applied on well plates by vacuum deposition technique followed by short and long-term in vitro biocompatibility study. In vitro testing represents a relatively fast and cheap approach, especially suitable for screening testing and prioritization of materials for further research. LIVE/DEAD assay, cell cycle analysis, adhesion and morphology of NIH 3T3 mouse fibroblasts have been investigated up to 7 days using flow cytometry and fluorescent optical microscopy. In summary, no significant differences were observed in viability, cell morphology, or attachment capabilities between control cells and cells grown on the EPI or QUI surfaces or cells cultivated in medium harvested from EPI- or QUI-coated wells. Our results suggest that both pigments are highly biocompatible. The absence of adverse biological effects of EPI and QUI together with their low cost and availability indicate their high application potential in next-generation bioelectronic devices.