Bio-based Packaging Research Articles

Bacterial Nanocellulose-A Biobased Polymer for Active and Intelligent Food Packaging Applications: Recent Advances and Developments.

The aim of this review is to provide an overview of recent findings related to bacterial cellulose application in bio-packaging industry. This constantly growing sector fulfils a major role by the maintenance of product safety and quality, protection against environmental impacts that affect the shelf life. Conventional petroleum-based plastic packaging are still rarely recyclable and have a number of harmful environmental effects. Herein, we discuss the most recent studies on potential good alternative to plastic packaging—bacterial nanocellulose (BNC), known as an ecological, safe, biodegradable, and chemically pure biopolymer. The limitations of this bio-based packaging material, including relatively poor mechanical properties or lack of antimicrobial and antioxidant activity, can be successfully overcome by its modification with a wide variety of bioactive and reinforcing compounds. BNC active and intelligent food packaging offer a new and innovative approach to extend the shelf life and maintain, improve, or monitor product quality and safety. Incorporation of different agents BNC matrices allows to obtain e.g., antioxidant-releasing films, moisture absorbers, antimicrobial membranes or pH, freshness and damage indicators, humidity, and other biosensors. However, further development and implementation of this kind of bio-packaging will highly depend on the final performance and cost-effectiveness for the industry and consumers.

Evolution of biobased and nanotechnology packaging – a review

Abstract This review deals with the evolution of bio-based packaging and the emergence of various nanotechnologies for primary food packaging. The end-of life issues of packaging is discussed and particularly the environmental problems associated with microplastics in the marine environment, which serve as a vector for the assimilation of persistent organic pollutants in the oceans and are transported into the food chain via marine and wild life. The use of biodegradable polymers has been a primary route to alleviate these environmental problems, but for various reasons the market has not developed at a sufficient pace that would cope with the mentioned environmental issues. Currently, the biodegradable plastics only constitute a small fraction of the fossil-based plastic market. Fossil-based plastics are, however, indispensable for food safety and minimization of food waste, and are not only cheap, but has generally more suitable mechanical and barrier properties compared to biodegradable polymers. More recently, various nanotechnologies such as the use of nanoclays, nanocellulose, layer-by-layer technologies and polyelectrolyte complexes have emerged as viable technologies to make oxygen and water vapor barriers suitable for food packaging. These technological developments are highlighted as well as issues like biodegradation, recycling, legislation issues and safety and toxicity of these nanotechnologies.

Rapid Non-Destructive Quantification of Eugenol in Curdlan Biofilms by Electronic Nose Combined with Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry.

Eugenol is hepatotoxic and potentially hazardous to human health. This paper reports on a rapid non-destructive quantitative method for the determination of eugenol concentration in curdlan (CD) biofilms by electronic nose (E-nose) combined with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Different concentrations of eugenol were added to the film-forming solution to form a series of biofilms by casting method, and the actual eugenol concentration in the biofilm was determined. Analysis of the odor collected on the biofilms was carried out by GC-MS and an E-nose. The E-nose data was subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) in order to establish a discriminant model for determining eugenol concentrations in the biofilms. Further analyses involving the application of all sensors and featured sensors, the prediction model-based partial least squares (PLS) and support vector machines (SVM) were carried out to determine eugenol concentration in the CD biofilms. The results showed that the optimal prediction model for eugenol concentration was obtained by PLS at R2p of 0.952 using 10 sensors. The study described a rapid, non-destructive detection and quantitative method for determining eugenol concentration in bio-based packaging materials.

The effects of green nudges on consumer valuation of bio-based plastic packaging

Plastic packaging is widely associated with negative environmental consequences, which is why the food industry is increasingly interested in pro-environmental packaging alternatives- such as bio-based plastic. As the market share for bio-based plastic packaging is still small, strategies to raise consumer awareness and willingness to pay (WTP) are needed. This study integrates insights from environmental psychology and behavioral economics into choice models to assess which green nudges are most effective to increase consumer WTP for bio-based packaging. We tested a total of four strategies by providing consumers with nature pictures, reflection questions, information on bio-based plastics and normative information. Using a sample of 1019 German consumers, our results indicate that the strongest effects are generated when the nudging strategy matches the characteristic of consumers' cognitive style. For example, providing nature pictures only seems to increase WTP for bio-based packaging when consumers base their decision on their emotions and intuition. On the other hand, the strategies that provide normative information and activate the reflection about environmental consequences of plastics are most effective for consumers who enjoy cognitive deliberation.

Study on the Influence of Bio-Based Packaging System on Sodium Benzoate Release Kinetics.

The influence of film structure on the release kinetics of sodium benzoate (SB) from polymeric films is addressed in this study. In particular, four film structures were investigated, two monolayer and two multilayer systems. In particular, in one case, the active substance was uniformly distributed into a chitosan-based matrix, and in the other one, it was previously incorporated into alginate beads before dispersion in the chitosan film, thus realizing two types of monolayer films; on the other hand, the same chitosan film with SB encapsulated in alginate beads was used as the inner layer of a multilayer system constituted by two side films of alginate. The two alginate-based layers were made with two different thicknesses, thus producing a total of two multilayer systems. The release of SB from the above-mentioned films in water was studied by means of a UV/VIS spectrophotometer at 227 nm. A first-order kinetics-type equation was used to quantitatively describe the release data. Results suggest that the film structure strongly affected the release kinetics. In fact, monolayer films showed single-stage release kinetics, whereas the two investigated multilayer systems showed two-stage release kinetics. Further, the presence of alginate beads strongly affected the SB release, thus suggesting the potential of encapsulation to control the release mechanism of active compounds.

Fabrication of Gelatin/Chitosan/Zeolite Composite Packaging Film for Enhancing the Quality of Fresh Meat During Storage

Valorisation of fishery by-products for the extraction of gelatin-like biopolymers is an active area of research presently due to their significant food and biomedical applications. In the present study, gelatin was extracted from the discarded portions of the Amphioctopusmarginatus. One of the major octopus species landed near the Kerala coast. Physico-chemical and functional characterization of the extracted gelatin was done based on SDS- PAGE, UV-Vis spectrophotometer, FTIR, XRD, HPLC, gelling and emulsifying capacities. Later, biocomposite film based on the gelatin/chitosan/zeolite was developed and characterized according to its solubility, opacity, spectroscopic analysis, antioxidative and antimicrobial activities. The results showed the dimensions of improving the properties of biopolymer films in terms of its ability to prevent the oxidative lipid changes, protein degradation and microbial spoilage in packaged fresh chicken meat over 9 days of refrigerated storage. The gelatin/chitosan/zeolite composite film thus developed has the potential to serve as a promising bio-based packaging material in the food packaging and meat processing industries.

Bio-Based Packaging: Materials, Modifications, Industrial Applications and Sustainability.

Environmental impacts and consumer concerns have necessitated the study of bio-based materials as alternatives to petrochemicals for packaging applications. The purpose of this review is to summarize synthetic and non-synthetic materials feasible for packaging and textile applications, routes of upscaling, (industrial) applications, evaluation of sustainability, and end-of-life options. The outlined bio-based materials include polylactic acid, polyethylene furanoate, polybutylene succinate, and non-synthetically produced polymers such as polyhydrodyalkanoate, cellulose, starch, proteins, lipids, and waxes. Further emphasis is placed on modification techniques (coating and surface modification), biocomposites, multilayers, and additives used to adjust properties especially for barriers to gas and moisture and to tune their biodegradability. Overall, this review provides a holistic view of bio-based packaging material including processing, and an evaluation of the sustainability of and options for recycling. Thus, this review contributes to increasing the knowledge of available sustainable bio-based packaging material and enhancing the transfer of scientific results into applications.

Synthesis and Properties Investigation of Thiophene-aromatic Polyesters: Potential Alternatives for the 2,5-Furandicarboxylic Acid-based Ones

In order to explore new substitutes for 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) or poly(ethylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate) (PEF) and try to develop more ideal bio-based polyesters, several thiophene-aromatic polyesters (PETH, PPTH, PBTH, and PHTH) were synthesized from dimethyl thiophene-2,5-dicarboxylate (DMTD) and different diols, including ethylene glycol, 1,3-propanediol, 1,4-butanediol, and 1,6-hexanediol. The chemical structures of obtained polyesters were confirmed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-NMR and 13C-NMR). Determined by GPC measurement, their average molecular weight (Mw) varied from 5.22 × 104 g/mol to 7.94 × 104 g/mol with the molar-mass dispersity of 1.50–2.00. Based on the DSC and TGA results, the synthesized polyesters PETH, PPTH, and PBTH displayed comparable or even better thermal properties when compared with their FDCA-based analogues. From PETH to PHTH, their Tg varied from 64.6 °C to −1 ×C while T5% ranged from 409 °C to 380 °C in nitrogen atmosphere. PETH showed elongation at break as high as 378%, tensile strength of 67 MPa, and tensile modulus of 1800 MPa. Meanwhile, the CO2 and O2 barrier of PETH was 12.0 and 6.6 folds higher than those of PET, respectively, and similar to those of PEF. Considering the overall properties, the synthesized thiophene-aromatic polyesters, especially PETH, showed great potential to be used as an excellent bio-based packaging material in the future.

Effect of chitosan-gelatin coating containing nano-encapsulated tarragon essential oil on the preservation of pork slices

There is an increasing demand for bio-based packaging materials incorporated with active nanoparticles as one of the new technologies to obtain food products with improved quality and extended shelf-life. The objectives of this study were to develop a chitosan-gelatin based edible coating incorporated with nano-encapsulated tarragon essential oils (TEO) and to investigate the effects of chitosan-gelatin coatings containing TEO or TEO-loaded nanoparticles (TEO-NPs) on the preservation of pork slices during refrigerated storage for 16 days. Nanoparticles with the average diameters of 246.27–504.60 nm were produced using different mass ratios of chitosan to TEO (1:0, 1:0.2, 1:0.4, 1:0.6, 1:0.8 and 1:1) by ionic gelation method. Zeta potential and encapsulation efficiency (EE) of the prepared TEO-NPs were 27.07–37.12 mV and 9.83–35.57%, respectively. TEO-NPs with the maximum EE were applied for preparing the edible coatings. The results suggested that the coating treatments could significantly inhibit quality deterioration of pork slices. Nano-encapsulation contributed to the sustained release of TEO and caused an improved antioxidant, antibacterial and sensory properties. The study suggests that chitosan-gelatin coating incorporated with TEO-NPs could be developed as a prospective active packaging to preserve pork slices.

An overview of Edible Protein-Based Packaging: Main Sources, Advantages, Drawbacks, Recent Progressions and Food Applications

Continuous challenges of non-biodegradability, non-renewability, non-biocompatibility and health concerns of petroleum-based packaging materials have shifted the focus of food industry towards edible biopolymer-based food packaging, specifically protein-based ones. Over the past decade, protein-based packaging have been comprehensively investigated more than other bio-based packaging materials, due to their biodegradability, availability and nutritional values. Protein film-forming components are isolated from various animal and plant sources such as animal muscles and tissues, milk, oilseeds and grains where each containing different composition, structure and functionality and for this reason the protein-based films would illustrate various mechanical, barrier, sensory and thermal properties. Currently, there could be several papers in regard to evaluation and comparison of protein-based packging, however this review would specifically discuss about the main film-forming proteins, strengths and limitations of each protein-based films as well as numerous studies related to rectification of these films, for the purpose of providing a beneficial overview to the scientists going forward. Moreover, the application of protein-based packaging in food industry have been detailed out in this paper for the first time.

α-costic acid, a plant sesquiterpenoid from Dittrichia viscosa, as modifier of Poly (lactic acid) properties: a novel exploitation of the autochthone biomass metabolite for a wholly biodegradable system

In this work, α−costic acid (α-CA), a metabolite coming from a perennial autochthon shrub Dittrichia viscose, was used as natural additive of polylactic acid (PLA), a biodegradable thermoplastic polymer, in order to modulate its chemico-physical properties, for the achievement of a wholly biobased packaging system. It’s the first time that α−costic acid is exploited for this appealing and novel application. The investigations performed on PLA/α-CA films, evidenced strong physical interaction occurring between the polymer and α-CA, as confirmed by NMR and FTIR-ATR analyses; SEM micrographs showed a good embedding of α-CA particles inside PLA polymer matrix; GPC analysis highlighted a slight hydrolysis of polymer matrix clearly evidenced in mechanical properties. DSC analysis underlined the significant decreasing of Tg, associated with the increase of PLA chain mobility. TGA thermograms evidenced one broad degradation profile of PLA/α-CA system, accounting for the weighty physical interaction occurring between the polar groups of both polymer and plasticizer. Finally, PLA surface wettability notably enhanced by the inclusion of α-CA polar groups. In conclusion, α-CA can be considered as a promising plasticizer of PLA and a worthy modifier of its overall properties.

Development of Biodegradable Packaging Materials from Bio-Based Raw Materials

Seaweed, creatures and cellulose based packaging materials are biodegradable and promising natural polymer and their films can be prepared from bio-based raw materials. This article reviews the basic information and recent developments of both seaweed, creatures, cellulose and plant based biopolymer materials as well as analyses the feasible formation of seaweed/creatures/cellulose/plant based biodegradable packaging films which possesses excellent mechanical strength and water resistance properties. Moreover, bio-based packaging films can prolong a product’s shelf life while maintaining its biodegradability. Additionally, the films show potential in contributing to the bio-economy. These type of bio-based materials exhibit interesting film-forming properties that can be used in biomedical application and for making composites for packaging. Bio-based films can be used for the large-scale applications in food packaging in place of synthetic petroleum based non-degradable packaging. Bio-based films have the potential to be used in textile and decoration paper industries also. Currently, bio packaging gains huge attention to the scientist and general people because this type packaging materials are environmental friendly products. Some of the viewpoints are highlighted for future developments and applications.

The paradox between the environmental appeal of bio-based plastic packaging for consumers and their disposal behaviour

To realize the potential environmental benefits that recycling and/or composting bio-based plastic packages can deliver, it is important that consumers view bio-based packaging as environmentally-friendly, but also correctly dispose of the packaging. The current experimental lab-in-the-field study was conducted among German consumers (n = 281) and explores whether consumers' perceived environmental benefits of recyclable and compostable bio-based plastic packages match with how consumers dispose of these packages. The results show that consumers only perceive compostable bio-based packages to have more environmental benefits than fossil-based packages. However, consumers dispose of compostable bio-based packages in an incorrect manner (not in line with what is communicated on the packaging label) relatively often. Consumers with a stronger familiarity with bio-based products more often correctly dispose of compostable bio-based packages, but not recyclable bio-based packages, relative to fossil-based packages. Thus, although mainly compostable bio-based plastic packages have strong environmental appeal to consumers, paradoxically this does not translate in the proper disposal actions to fully capitalize on the environmental benefits that bio-based packages can actually deliver. Increasing consumers' bio-based product familiarity might be an avenue to increase the levels of sustainable disposal.

Characterization of hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose–whey protein concentrate bionanocomposite films reinforced by chitosan nanoparticles

In the current study, some physicochemical, mechanical, thermal, structural, and antibacterial properties of hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose–whey protein concentrate (HPMC–WPC) film loaded with chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) are scrutinized. Initially, the optimal ratio of HPMC:WPC (70:30) was screened, then CNPs loaded into the HPMC:WPC blend film at the levels of 1%–5%. Well compatibility of the blend film components and generation intermolecular interactions were demonstrated by Fourier transform infrared and X-ray diffraction tests, respectively. A uniform distribution of CNPs within the film structure was monitored by scanning electron microscopy micrographs. The DSC scans showed an upgrading in thermal characterizations of the blend film as a result of CNPs addition. As well, the water vapor permeability and flexibility of bionanocomposites decreased, while the tensile strength improved considerably (p < .05). The antibacterial effects of CNPs was more evident on Gram-positive (Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus) rather than Gram-negative (Escherichia coli) bacteria. Practical applications The current research would have various uses in the area of food packaging. Bio-based packaging films are developed to substitute petrol-based materials for health and ecological reasons. Nanoparticle loading and blending of plant-based biopolymer films are strategies can strength their physical, mechanical, structural, and antibacterial attributes.

Propiedades físico-mecánicas, barreras y propiedades antimicrobianas de películas de mucílago de linaza incorporadas con extracto de H. Virginiana

Increased interest in providing safe food with excellent quality and shelf-life has resulted in increased efforts toward developing new bio-based packaging materials. The objectives of this study were to develop and characterize films based on linseed mucilage (LM) at concentrations of 2.0%, 2.5%, and 3.0% and the further development of antimicrobial films (AFs) incorporating Hamamelis virginiana (Hv) extract. The films with the greatest LM concentration was selected as the best formulation based on its mechanical properties, water vapor permeability and moisture sensitivity. Moreover, the antimicrobial activities of Hv extract against foodborne pathogens were evaluated. Minimum inhibitory concentrations were 1.18 mg mL-1 for L. monocytogenes and 2.37 mg mL-1 for S. typhi, S. aureus, and E. coli. Finally, AFs were developed by incorporating Hv extract at 2.37 mg mL-1 into a base of 3.0% LM, increasing elongation at break, antioxidant activity to 80.56%, moisture sensitivity, and antimicrobial activity (increasing inhibition zones to 19.50 – 22.50 mm). It also decreased tensile strength, maximum force, and water vapor permeability. These results suggest that AFs based on LM with Hv extract have sufficient properties for a potential packaging material.

The influence of organic modification on the cytotoxicity of clay particles to keratinocytes, hepatocytes and macrophages; an investigation towards the safe use of polymer-clay nanocomposite packaging

Organically modified clays can be used as nanofillers in polymer-clay nanocomposites to create bio-based packaging with improved strength and barrier properties. The impact of organic modification on the physico-chemical properties and toxicity of clays has yet to be fully investigated but is essential to ensure their safe use. Two organoclays, named N116_HDTA and N116_TMSA, were prepared using a commercially available sodium bentonite clay and the organic modifiers hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (HDTA) and octadecyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (TMSA). An in vitro hazard assessment was performed using HaCaT skin cells, C3A liver cells, and J774.1 macrophage-like cells. Organic modification with HDTA and TMSA increased the hazard potential of the organoclays in all cell models, as evidenced by the higher levels of cytotoxicity measured. N116_TMSA caused the greatest loss in viability with IC50 values of 3.2, 3.6 and 6.1 μg/cm2 calculated using J774.1, HaCaT and C3A cell lines, respectively. Cytotoxic effects were dictated by the amount of free or displaced organic modifier present in the exposure suspensions. The parent bentonite clay also caused distinct cytotoxic effects in J774.1 macrophage-like cells with associated TNF-α release. Such information on the hazard profile of organoclays, can feed into risk assessments for these materials.

Preparation of nanofibrillated cellulose and application in reinforced PLA/starch nanocomposite film

Polylactic acid (PLA), one of the most promising biopolymers with exceptional properties, is being used in a wide variety of applications in diverse fields. However, low degradation rate, relatively high cost and inherently high brittleness of PLA severely hamper its further development, particularly in functional nanocomposites for bio-based packaging. In the present work, green, biodegradable and reinforced PLA-based nanocomposite films were designed and prepared, where starch was incorporated for reducing the overall cost of nanocomposites for large-scale application, and nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) isolated from microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) via a completely green process was employed as a reinforcing phase. Initially, the morphology structure and dimension of the NFC samples isolated by high-pressure homogenization (HPH) coupled with hot water pretreatment were characterized using SEM, FT-IR, XRD, and laser scattering particle analyzer. Moreover, the effect of NFC loadings on the rheological behavior of the PLA based nanocomposite suspensions and the overall properties of the corresponding nanocomposite films were investigated. Results indicated that increased NFC loadings reduced the shear viscosity and shear stress of the nanocomposite suspensions. Furthermore, the desired PLA/starch/NFC nanocomposite films were found to exhibit improved tensile strength, Young’s modulus and reduced air permeability in comparison to pure PLA/starch films. This work offered an effective route for the preparation of biodegradable and reinforced PLA-based nanocomposite films, which may be promising bio-nanocomposite materials for food packaging applications.

Rethinking packaging production and consumption vis-à-vis circular economy: A case study of compostable cassava starch-based material

In the dominant industrial economy, packaging waste represents a significant share of urban solid waste generation (∼20.0% by volume in Europe and United States), with wide-ranging negative impacts on interconnected human-Earth systems. The transition from the dominant linear economy to a model grounded in circularity by intention and design can build a new essential foundation for the market economy and packaging utilization. This work examines packaging production and consumption vis-à-vis circular economy. In pursuing this goal, it comprises (i) a life cycle inventory analysis of rigid packaging products, discussing yield of raw materials and products, water and energy use, and GHG emissions; (ii) a case study of cassava starch-based material, and (iii) a comparative analysis between petroleum-based and cassava starch-based packaging. The results clearly indicate that compostable packaging of cassava starch has far better societal and environmental outcomes than petroleum-based packaging. The transition from the linear (take-make-use-dispose) to the circular (grow-make-use-restore) pattern creates new opportunities for innovation beyond technology, as it inevitably redefines the significance of waste, products, services, markets, natural capital, and growth. Addressing the GHG emissions from the petroleum-based packaging industry, the societal adoption of bio-based packaging of cassava starch is an effective and promising Climate Change mitigation strategy.

Potential of lignocellulosic fractions from Posidonia oceanica to improve barrier and mechanical properties of bio-based packaging materials

This work reports on the valorization of residues from Posidonia oceanica leaves for the purpose of obtaining lignocellulosic fractions of interest for the development of bio-based materials for food packaging. The lignocellulosic fractions were characterized, thereby confirming the purification of cellulose and showing increases in crystallinity and thermal stability after the consecutive extraction steps. Subsequently, pure lignocellulosic films were obtained and characterized and the pure cellulose film showed the best properties in terms of mechanical performance and water vapor permeability. Finally, composite starch films containing lignocellulosic fractions were developed by melt compounding and characterized. Although the film containing the pure cellulose additive showed the optimum improvement in terms of mechanical properties (with an increase of 85% in the elastic modulus and 38% in the tensile strength), similar water vapor permeability reduction (~40%) was achieved with the least purified fractions, explained by their effect on starch gelatinization, as evidenced by SAXS/WAXS.

System feasibility: Designing a chlorine dioxide self-generating package label to improve fresh produce safety part II: Solution casting approach

This work evaluated the ability of an innovative and practical package label made from biobased polymers impregnated with sodium chlorite and citric acid to generate and release chlorine dioxide (ClO2) at levels sufficient to inactivate pathogenic bacteria on packaged fresh produce. The concentrations of generated ClO2 by these labels were dependent on the number of layers used and the inclusion of barrier layers. Release rates decreased exponentially with number of layers, providing an additional level of control. Storage temperature had no significant effect on the release of ClO2. All labels released ClO2 at concentrations capable of complete inactivation of Salmonella cells on TSA plates. Under low-humidity conditions, the labels reduced the levels of Salmonella on inoculated mung bean seeds by up to 2.0 log CFU/g. These results indicate that these labels can be used in a wide range of storage environments for enhancing safety and shelf-life of packaged fresh produce. The biobased packaging labels present a commercially viable solution to the problem of controlling microbial growth on fresh produce. Due to the ease of manufacture under existing commercial coating technology, they can be produced and activated simultaneously with fresh produce packaging in the plant. These labels can be adapted to different food safety requirements by modulating the number of functional biobased layers, without or with biobased barrier layers, and label surface areas for generating the required concentration of ClO2 at the optimal rate.